A Call to Action for Gender Equity in Climate Leadership

Britt Wray Center for Innovation in Global Health, Stanford University, Palo Alto, California;
Center on Climate Change & Planetary Health, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom

Search for other papers by Britt Wray in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Close
,
Erika M. Veidis Center for Innovation in Global Health, Stanford University, Palo Alto, California;

Search for other papers by Erika M. Veidis in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Close
,
Elaine C. Flores Center for Innovation in Global Health, Stanford University, Palo Alto, California;
Center on Climate Change & Planetary Health, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom

Search for other papers by Elaine C. Flores in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Close
,
Allison A. Phillips Center for Innovation in Global Health, Stanford University, Palo Alto, California;

Search for other papers by Allison A. Phillips in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Close
,
Ola Alani Center for Innovation in Global Health, Stanford University, Palo Alto, California;

Search for other papers by Ola Alani in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Close
, and
Michele Barry Center for Innovation in Global Health, Stanford University, Palo Alto, California;

Search for other papers by Michele Barry in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Close

ABSTRACT.

Climate action is not advancing quickly enough to prevent catastrophic harm. Understanding why might require looking at existing leadership structures and the inequitable gender representation therein. Critically examining dominant power structures could pave the way toward more comprehensive, innovative, and expedient environmental solutions—and we argue that elevating women’s climate leadership is key to safeguarding planetary health. Women have historically been left out of climate science and governance leadership. Women are disproportionately impacted by the health effects of climate change, particularly in Indigenous and low- and middle-income settings. Therefore, our call for women’s climate leadership is both an issue of justice and a matter of effectiveness, given evidence that inclusive leadership rooted in gender justice leads to more equitable outcomes. Here, we present evidence for why gender equity in climate leadership matters along with considerations for how to attain it across sectors and stakeholders.

INTRODUCTION

Climate action is not advancing quickly enough. Understanding why might require looking at existing leadership structures. Women and those living in areas that suffer most from frontline effects of climate change, particularly in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), are often excluded from power-holding positions in climate governance yet have contributed the least to environmental degradation.16 Intersectional approaches that recognize the economic, geographic, cultural, racial, and other often intersecting factors feeding the inequitable impacts of climate change are critical foundations for finding and employing equitable solutions.7 Equitable solutions require perspectives outside of dominant systems, and engaging the voices, values, and ideas of underrepresented groups is critical to accelerating urgently needed, practical, and life-sustaining climate and environmental action.

In Audre Lorde’s words, “the master’s tools will never dismantle the master’s house.”8 In this piece, we examine this adage through the lens of gender—and argue that, in the face of accelerating environmental change, humanity cannot afford to leave women out of climate leadership. Gender equity in climate leadership across axes of governance and policy, business, academia, the nonprofit sector, and implementation groups may be a critical lifeline to securing a sustainable future in which humanity can thrive.†

EMPOWER WOMEN FOR MORE EFFECTIVE CLIMATE SOLUTIONS

Women’s leadership in government corresponds with greater environmental protections,10 more stringent climate policies,11 and the ratification of environmental treaties12—as seen, for example, in increased favorable environmental outcomes in the European Parliament and U.S. Congress.13,14 Moreover, the environmental and climate policies that do get passed when women are in leadership positions are likely to be more effective and promote equality.15

This holds at scale—and also at the grassroots level. For example a study of Community Forestry Institutions (CFIs) in India and Nepal that analyzed data across 94 villages found that women’s presence in the Executive Committees of CFIs positively impacts forest conservation and women’s empowerment, justice, and welfare.16 Another study looking at the impact of enforcing gender quotas in forest management community groups in Indonesia, Peru, and Tanzania found that groups in which women comprised an equal number or majority of members conserved more trees and shared payments more equally among members.15

Those who control resources usually have the power to monopolize conversations and perpetuate existing narratives, but if these trends can be disrupted, so too might the current stagnation in effective climate action and other needed pro-environmental policies.17 By advancing women in climate leadership and policy, we argue that this generation and those that follow will stand a better chance of accelerating climate solutions.

HOW WOMEN ARE LEFT OUT OF CLIMATE LEADERSHIP

The barricades against women’s climate leadership are as old as the field of climate science itself. Even women responsible for scientific breakthroughs foundational to climate science have been left out of the dialogue and predominantly white and male-dominated existing leadership structures.

History books, for example, do not teach that it was a woman, Eunice Foote, who first discovered that carbon dioxide is what we now call a “greenhouse gas,” and instead credit male scientist John Tyndall for that breakthrough.18 This example illustrates the Matilda effect19—a bias against acknowledging women for their scientific accomplishments in favor of men with more opportunity for visibility and impact. Today, we see bias against women’s leadership continuing at larger scales in global climate policy and scientific decision-making.

Although women’s representation in the United Nations’ (UN’s) Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), for instance, has grown from 8% in 1990 to 33% in 2021, a recent survey examining gender balance in the IPCC found limited female representation and engagement.20 Despite women constituting 30% of researchers worldwide, there were fewer women in senior research positions contributing to it.21 In addition, women reported unequal opportunities to be nominated, speak, shape content, or lead IPCC chapters. Male scientists were perceived to dominate discussions and writing, and several instances of women being uncredited, ignored, or even harassed were reported. Furthermore, of the top 1,000 influential climate scientists measured by publication records and compiled by Reuters, only 12.3% are women, and of the top 20 climate scientists, only one is a woman, pointing out a significant gender gap in climate science.22

Gender inequality is a destructive force that undermines women’s rights and abilities to lead in entrepreneurship, governance, research, and economic participation. Early influences that shape these outcomes are embedded within childhood education and the provision of other privileges and resources. For instance, well-documented disparities exist in how girls and boys are educated, particularly in science, technology, engineering and math fields.2325 This imbalance leads to a reduced overall comparative pool of credible women scientists and professionals, affecting women’s ability to hold power over multiple matters given current economic and governance paradigms. The gender gap is troubling and stark across positions of power inside the institutions most capable of swiftly moving the needle on climate action, particularly in national governments that are sent to the UN climate negotiations. This is symptomatic of a broader global political leadership problem, in which there is a dearth of women at the top.26

Efforts to remedy this trend in climate governance have not yet succeeded in making systemic change. Several attempts at the UN level have sought to advance women’s leadership on climate, including the Glasgow Women’s Leadership Statement on Gender Equality and Climate Change launched at COP26 in a joint effort by the Scottish Government and UN Women (COP, or Conference of the Parties, is an international climate summit brought together by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change [UNFCCC])27; the UN Secretary General’s initiative on Gender and Climate Change launched at the Global Climate Action Summit 201928; the Feminist Action for Climate Justice Action coalition under the Generation Equality Forum29; and the UN Women’s “Feminist Plan for Sustainability and Social Justice” report,30 as well as the Gender Action Plan agreed on at COP25 to advance the rights and interests of women and girls in the UNFCCC process and support gender-responsive climate policy and programming.31 However, these initiatives risk being mere symbolic gestures, as the UN climate negotiations remain dominated overwhelmingly by men.

At the 2021 COP26, only 33% of all formal roles were filled by female government delegates, as was the case in 2020 and 2019, demonstrating the lack of progress being made in female representation.32 Women from the most climate-vulnerable countries were largely absent at decision-making levels. This occurred despite widespread acknowledgment at the negotiations of the disproportionate vulnerability that women face from climate change, especially in LMICs and Indigenous communities.27 Ahead of the gathering, 400 influential women publicly challenged the COP26 United Kingdom hosting team (as coordinated by the global campaign and advocacy group She Changes Climate) and demanded/by demanding that the predominantly male COP26 steering team shift to 50:50 gender representation,33 a plea that was left unmet. The following year, COP27 in Egypt was led by another male president, UN Climate Change mentioned that women led only 20% of national delegations,34 and according to She Changes Climate, only seven of the 110 world leaders at COP27 were women.35 Since the first COP in 1995, only four women have been appointed as COP presidents.35 The United Arab Emirates has named a male oil company chief to lead the COP28 climate negotiations next year.36

WOMEN AND GIRLS FACE ELEVATED HARM IN A WARMING WORLD

Women bear the brunt of harm and health risks from climate hazards,37 especially in emerging economies,38 and have been historically deprived of agency and voice. In addition to biological susceptibilities,39,40 especially during pregnancy, climate change disproportionately harms women as a result of traditional roles and preexisting structural and societal inequities that impair women’s influence and status2,41,42 (Table 1).

Table 1

Disproportionate impacts of climate change on women

Pathway Gender specific outcomes
Disaster-related mortality and resilience Women are more exposed to climate disasters and may suffer disproportionate mortality rates from these events.4345
Particularly in low- and middle-income countries, women often have less access to financial resources (savings, loans, credits) that are protective in emergencies and influence both disaster preparedness and recovery.4648
Infectious disease Climate change is increasing the emergence and spread of infectious diseases.49 This disproportionately affects women and girls in lower-income settings owing to their increased contact with vectors through traditional water collection.38,5052
The growth of climate migration as a global phenomenon will increase the risk of disease spread by gender-based violence, with subsequent sexually transmitted diseases occurring during displacement.514648
Food insecurity An estimated 60% of chronically hungry people are women and girls,53 a population that also experiences higher rates of anemia and malnutrition.44
Women often occupy unfavorable positions in household food hierarchies in lower-income settings, exacerbating their hunger.54
Climate change can both decrease access to food and diminish the nutritional quality of food,55 magnifying these risks for women.
Agricultural impacts of extreme weather events have been found to be worse in areas where land shares are owned by women, potentially because of less investment in agricultural technologies, impacting women’s welfare.56
Reproductive health Climate and environmental hazards such as pollutants affect women’s reproductive health and fertility57,58 and impact their ability to access reproductive and maternal health services.44
Pregnancy-related outcomes can be affected by infectious disease, nutrition risks, and extreme heat,44 all of which are exacerbated by climate change.
Heat stress, especially prevalent in lower-income regions, can increase the occurrence of preterm births, low birth weight, developmental malformations, and stillbirths following maternal exposure to extreme heat.59
Air quality Poor air quality made worse by climate change–related wildfire smoke, drought-related dust, and ground-level ozone disproportionately impacts women given their higher rates of anemia and higher propensity to have particulate matter deposited in the lung tissue.44
Cooking indoors with solid biomass endangers the respiratory health of women and girls worldwide—who traditionally occupy cooking roles—by increasing their exposure to air pollution.6062
Heat The relationship between heatwaves and human morbidity and mortality is well established.63 This is especially the case in lower-income countries, which bear a greater burden of extreme heat events and drought.64
Across lower-income regions, women and girls face increased health risks from heat because of their lower socioeconomic status and traditional gender roles, such as carrying wood for cooking.54
Mental health Women experience greater climate change–related mental health concerns, such as anxiety and depression.65
Women’s traditional roles as caregivers—and in some settings, closer day-to-day interactions with the land—could place them at higher risk for mental health impacts during and after environmental events.66,67
Violence Gender-based violence—including sexual assault, domestic abuse,44,68 and intimate partner violence69—has been found to increase during and after extreme weather events and is often related to economic instability, food insecurity, mental stress, damaged infrastructure, increased exposure to men, and patriarchal norms.70,71
Displacement According to the United Nations, 80% of people displaced by climate change are women.72 Displacement is typically linked to the underserved and impoverished, which itself is significantly impacted by gender.73
The increase in climate disasters and displacements, including the loss of property, livelihoods, and other indirect and long-term effects, is known to have a gender-differentiated impact.74
In some settings, natural disasters have been found to have stronger and longer-lasting consequences for women’s economic status.75

WHY WOMEN’S LEADERSHIP MATTERS: A CALL TO ACTION

We call for more women in global climate leadership and policy. More specifically, we call for equitable representation, meaning at least 50% female representation from women leaders with environmental expertise and lived experience, in governments in high-, middle- and low-income countries and in multilateral climate organizations, including the IPCC and all upcoming UN climate negotiations at COP. Women should also be elevated in other spheres of climate action—including the private sector, academia, local institutions, and community organizations, all of which are central to comprehensive adaptation and mitigation.

We recognize that women’s climate leadership, especially from disadvantaged settings, is obstructed by multiplicative structural factors,20 including cultural norms, childcare obligations, inadequate financial support, and limited access to education. Ensuring gender equity in leadership means enacting structural changes to address these disparities in ways that are accountable to populations. Nations must invest in equitable access to childhood education and other resources that cultivate mastery of leadership assets to help close the gender gap in climate leadership. Paying attention to this confluence of issues reveals how acting more effectively on climate change may simultaneously require addressing women’s education, economic empowerment, and access to reproductive healthcare, childcare, and other support services.

Although the work of describing how we may disassemble structural barriers is beyond the scope of this paper, we summarize our call to action as the need to see equal representation of female climate leaders appear in76 1) governments in high-income countries (i.e., the governments that must provide their fair share in climate finance alongside implementing ambitious emission reduction targets, as they are responsible for more than 79% of historic carbon emissions)77; 2) governments, local institutions, and communities in LMICs (i.e., bodies that must enact policies and actions that are relevant to climate adaptation and disaster risk reduction); 3) multilateral organizations (i.e., the institutions that must implement pro-poor climate-relevant policies), including the IPCC and upcoming UN climate negotiations at COP, paying particular attention to making sure that women from LMICs and climate-vulnerable populations are represented; and 4) climate research and academia, ensuring that the data and findings that often form the foundation for many decisions, new innovations, and policies represent a broad perspective.

In conclusion, tackling the enormous challenge of climate change requires listening to the world’s most vulnerable populations, recognizing how innovative and transformative thinking requires drawing from the voices most impacted by climate challenges yet often left out of current power-holding positions, and designing comprehensive approaches to elevate equitable leadership. In this case, our focal population is women—but the argument is similar for Indigenous populations, communities of color, lower-income communities, and others who have been marginalized by cultural, political, and economic norms and are acutely impacted by climate disruption and other environmental challenges.

Diversifying climate leadership by empowering women is a critical missing catalyst to launch us into a new era of desperately needed solutions, incisive decision-making, and urgent action for a healthier planet that supports the thriving of all its people.

REFERENCES

  • 1.

    Kartha S , Kemp-Benedict E , Ghosh E , Nazareth A , Gore T , 2020. The Carbon Inequality Era: An Assessment of the Global Distribution of Consumption Emissions among Individuals from 1990 to 2015 and Beyond. Oxfam and Stockholm Environment Institute. Available at: https://policy-practice.oxfam.org/resources/the-carbon-inequality-era-an-assessment-of-the-global-distribution-of-consumpti-621049/. Accessed September 16, 2022.

    • PubMed
    • Export Citation
  • 2.

    Ortiz-Ospina E , Roser M , 2018. Economic Inequality by Gender. Our World in Data. Available at: https://ourworldindata.org/economic-inequality-by-gender#citation. Accessed September 16, 2022.

    • PubMed
    • Export Citation
  • 3.

    Pearse R , 2017. Gender and climate change. Wiley Interdiscip Rev Clim Change 8: e451.

  • 4.

    Rao N , Lawson ET , Raditloaneng WN , Solomon D , Angula MN , 2017. Gendered vulnerabilities to climate change: insights from the semi-arid regions of Africa and Asia. Clim Dev 11: 1426.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 5.

    van Daalen K , Jung L , Dhatt R , Phelan AL , 2020. Climate change and gender-based health disparities. Lancet Planet Health 4: e44e45.

  • 6.

    de Paula N , Jung L , Mar K , Bowen K , Maglakelidze M , Fünderich M , Otieno M , El Omrani O , Baunach S , Gepp S , 2021. A planetary health blind spot: the untapped potential of women to safeguard nature and human resilience in LMICs. Lancet Planet Health 5: e109e110.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 7.

    Kaijser A , Kronsell A , 2014. Climate change through the lens of intersectionality. Env Polit 23: 417433.

  • 8.

    Lorde A , 2018. The Master’s Tools Will Never Dismantle the Master’s House. London, United Kingdom: Penguin UK.

  • 9.

    Lorber J , Grusky D & Hill J Inequality in the 21st Century: A Reader. New York, NY: Routledge, 347352.

  • 10.

    Nugent C , Shandra JM , 2009. State environmental protection efforts, women’s status, and world polity. Organ Environ 22: 208229.

  • 11.

    Mavisakalyan A , Tarverdi Y , 2019. Gender and climate change: do female parliamentarians make difference? Eur J Polit Econ 56: 151164.

  • 12.

    Norgaard K , York R , 2016. Gender equality and state environmentalism. Gend Soc 19: 506522.

  • 13.

    Ramstetter L , Habersack F , 2020. Do women make a difference? Analysing environmental attitudes and actions of members of the European Parliament. Env Polit 29: 10631084.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 14.

    Fredriksson PG , Wang L , 2011. Sex and environmental policy in the U.S. House of Representatives. Econ Lett 113: 228230.

  • 15.

    Cook NJ , Grillos T , Andersson KP , 2019. Gender quotas increase the equality and effectiveness of climate policy interventions. Nat Clim Chang 9: 330334.

  • 16.

    Agarwal B , 2010. Gender and Green Governance: The Political Economy of Women’s Presence Within and Beyond Community Forestry. New Delhi, India: Oxford University Press.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 17.

    Boehm S et al., 2021. State Of Climate Action 2021: Systems Transformations Required to Limit Global Warming to 1.5°C. World Resources Institute. Available at: https://www.wri.org/research/state-climate-action-2021. Accessed September 18, 2022.

    • PubMed
    • Export Citation
  • 18.

    Wilkinson K , 2019. The Woman Who Discovered the Cause of Global Warming was Long Overlooked. Her Story is a Reminder to Champion All Women Leading on Climate. Time. Available at: https://time.com/5626806/eunice-foote-women-climate-science/. Accessed September 19, 2022.

    • PubMed
    • Export Citation
  • 19.

    Lincoln AE , Pincus S , Koster JB , Leboy PS , 2012. The Matilda effect in science: awards and prizes in the US, 1990s and 2000s. Soc Stud Sci 42: 307320.

  • 20.

    Liverman D et al., 2022. Survey of gender bias in the IPCC. Nature 602: 3032.

  • 21.

    UNESCO Institute for Statistics , 2019. Women in Science. Available at: http://uis.unesco.org/en/topic/women-science. Accessed September 19, 2022.

    • PubMed
    • Export Citation
  • 22.

    Tamman M , 2021. The Reuters Hot List of 1,000 Top Climate Scientists. Reuters. Available at: https://www.reuters.com/investigates/special-report/climate-change-scientists-list/. Accessed September 16, 2022.

    • PubMed
    • Export Citation
  • 23.

    Wang MT , Degol JL , 2017. Gender gap in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM): current knowledge, implications for practice, policy, and future directions. Educ Psychol Rev 29: 119140.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 24.

    Su J , Yang W , Zhong Y , 2022. Influences of gender and socioeconomic status on children’s use of robotics in early childhood education: a systematic review. Early Educ Dev 21: 17.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 25.

    Sahin A , Mohr-Schroeder MJ , 2019. STEM Education 2.0: Myths and Truths–What Has K-12 STEM Education Research Taught Us? Leiden, Boston: Brill Sense.

  • 26.

    World Economic Forum , 2021. Global Gender Gap Report 2021. Available at: https://www.weforum.org/reports/global-gender-gap-report-2021/digest/?DAG=3&gclid=Cj0KCQjw94WZBhDtARIsAKxWG-84X9Tud66C3jNvYb433E5pNiS7merUdacVCcJoxgGjvguSNc-66T4aAodmEALw_wcB. Accessed September 16, 2022.

    • PubMed
    • Export Citation
  • 27.

    Scottish Government , 2021. Gender Equality and Climate Change: Glasgow Women’s Leadership Statement. Available at: http://www.gov.scot/publications/glasgow-womens-leadership-statement-gender-equality-climate-change/. Accessed September 17, 2022.

    • PubMed
    • Export Citation
  • 28.

    United Nations Secretary-General , 2019. Report of the Secretary-General on the 2019 Climate Action Summit and the Way Forward in 2020. Available at: https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/3850027?ln=en. Accessed September 17, 2022.

    • PubMed
    • Export Citation
  • 29.

    Generation Equality , 2021. Action for Climate Justice Action Coalition. Available at: https://forum.generationequality.org/sites/default/files/2021-10/Feminist%20Action%20for%20Climate%20Justice%20Action%20Coalition%20-%20Collective%20Commitments.pdf. Accessed September 17, 2022.

    • PubMed
    • Export Citation
  • 30.

    United Nations Women, Research and Data Section , 2021. Beyond COVID-19: A Feminist Plan for Sustainability and Social Justice. Available at: https://www.unwomen.org/sites/default/files/Headquarters/Attachments/Sections/Library/Publications/2021/Feminist-plan-for-sustainability-and-social-justice-en.pdf. Accessed September 17, 2022.

    • PubMed
    • Export Citation
  • 31.

    United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The Gender Action Plan. Available at: https://unfccc.int/topics/gender/workstreams/the-gender-action-plan. Accessed September 17, 2022.

    • PubMed
    • Export Citation
  • 32.

    United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , 2021. Overrepresentation of Men in UN Climate Process Persists. Available at: https://unfccc.int/news/overrepresentation-of-men-in-un-climate-process-persists. Accessed September 17, 2022.

    • PubMed
    • Export Citation
  • 33.

    Hodgson C , 2016. Climate Leaders Protest Against Lack of Women at High Levels in UN Summit. Financial Times. Available at: https://www.ft.com/content/ae1f6fba-641e-46c1-a6ba-3d960d0bc9f6. Accessed September 17, 2022.

    • PubMed
    • Export Citation
  • 34.

    United Nations Climate Change [@UNFCC] , 2023. Did You Know that Only 20% of National Delegations at COP27 were Headed by Women? #WomenInMultilateralism Day [Tweet]. Twitter. Available at: https://twitter.com/UNFCCC/status/1618265882144411650. Accessed January 31, 2023.

    • PubMed
    • Export Citation
  • 35.

    She Changes Climate Homepage. Available at: https://www.shechangesclimate.org/. Accessed January 31, 2023.

    • PubMed
    • Export Citation
  • 36.

    Haq SN , Rebane T , 2023. UAE Appoints Oil Company Boss as President of the COP28 Climate Conference, Alarming Climate Groups. CNN. Available at: https://www.cnn.com/2023/01/12/world/cop28-uae-sultan-al-jaber-president-climate-intl/index.html. Accessed February 3, 2023.

    • PubMed
    • Export Citation
  • 37.

    Langer A et al., 2015. Women and health: the key for sustainable development. Lancet 386: 11651210.

  • 38.

    Watts N et al., 2019. The 2019 report of The Lancet Countdown on health and climate change: ensuring that the health of a child born today is not defined by a changing climate. Lancet 394: 18361878.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 39.

    Rylander C , Øyvind Odland J , Manning Sandanger T , 2013. Climate change and the potential effects on maternal and pregnancy outcomes: an assessment of the most vulnerable–the mother, fetus, and newborn child. Glob Health Action 6: 19538.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 40.

    Arroyo V , Díaz J , Carmona R , Ortiz C , Linares C , 2016. Impact of air pollution and temperature on adverse birth outcomes: Madrid, 2001–2009. Environ Pollut 218: 11541161.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 41.

    Naz F , Saqib SE , 2021. Gender-based differences in flood vulnerability among men and women in the char farming households of Bangladesh. Nat Hazards 106: 655677.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 42.

    Atkinson AB , Casarico A , Voitchovsky S , 2018. Top incomes and the gender divide. J Econ Inequal 16: 225256.

  • 43.

    Camey IC , Sabater L , Owren C , Boyer AE , Wen J , 2020. Gender-Based Violence and Environment Linkages: The Violence of Inequality. International Union for Conservation of Nature. Available at: https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/files/documents/2020-002-En.pdf. Accessed September 19, 2022.

    • PubMed
    • Export Citation
  • 44.

    Sorensen C , Murray V , Lemery J , Balbus J , 2018. Climate change and women’s health: impacts and policy directions. PLoS Med 15: e1002603.

  • 45.

    Sophie AE , De Vries A , Stephan R , Thies F , Kabir K , Maruo M , 2021. Gender Dimensions of Disaster Risk and Resilience: Existing Evidence. World Bank. Available at: https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/35202. Accessed September 18, 2022.

    • PubMed
    • Export Citation
  • 46.

    Kerblat Y , Arab A , Walsh BJ , Simpson AL , Hallegatte S , 2021. Overlooked: Examining the Impact of Disasters and Climate Shocks on Poverty in the Europe and Central Asia Region. World Bank, Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery. Available at: https://documents.worldbank.org/en/publication/documents-reports/documentdetail/493181607687673440/overlooked-examining-the-impact-of-disasters-and-climate-shocks-on-poverty-in-the-europe-and-central-asia-region. Accessed September 18, 2022.

    • PubMed
    • Export Citation
  • 47.

    World Bank , 2021. Gender-Responsive Disaster Preparedness and Recovery in the Caribbean: Desk Review. Available at: https://www.gfdrr.org/en/publication/gender-responsive-disaster-preparedness-and-recovery-caribbean-desk-review. Accessed September 18, 2022.

    • PubMed
    • Export Citation
  • 48.

    Neumayer E , Plümper T , 2008. The gendered nature of natural disasters: the impact of catastrophic events on the gender gap in life expectancy, 1981–2002. Ann Am Assoc Geogr 97: 551566.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 49.

    Williams PC , Bartlett AW , Howard‐Jones A , McMullan B , Khatami A , Britton PN , Marais BJ , 2021. Impact of climate change and biodiversity collapse on the global emergence and spread of infectious diseases. Paediatr Child Health 57: 18111818.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 50.

    Chattu VK , Yaya S , 2020. Emerging infectious diseases and outbreaks: implications for women’s reproductive health and rights in resource-poor settings. Reprod Health 17: 15.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 51.

    Chersich MF , Wright CY , Venter F , Rees H , Scorgie F , Erasmus B , 1884. Impacts of climate change on health and wellbeing in South Africa. Int J Environ Res Public Health 15: 1984.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 52.

    Wenham C , Nunes J , Correa Matta G , de Oliveira Nogueira C , Aparecida Valente P , Pimenta DN , 2020. Gender mainstreaming as a pathway for sustainable arbovirus control in Latin America. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 14: e0007954.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 53.

    World Food Programme , 2021. WFP Gender Policy (2022–2026). Available at: https://executiveboard.wfp.org/document_download/WFP-0000132139. Accessed September 18, 2022.

    • PubMed
    • Export Citation
  • 54.

    Watts N et al., 2015. Health and climate change: policy responses to protect public health. Lancet 386: 18611914.

  • 55.

    Smith MR , Myers SS , 2018. Impact of anthropogenic CO2 emissions on global human nutrition. Nat Clim Chang 8: 834839.

  • 56.

    Asfaw S , Maggio G , 2018. Gender, weather shocks and welfare: evidence from Malawi. J Dev Stud 54: 271291.

  • 57.

    Woodruff TJ , Janssen SJ , Guillette LJ , Giudice LC , 2010. Environmental Impacts on Reproductive Health and Fertility. Cambridge University Press. Available at: https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/environmental-impacts-on-reproductive-health-and-fertility/66E0350862AEAF33AA758B8BE5CB3EC7#fndtn-contents. Accessed September 18, 2022.

    • PubMed
    • Export Citation
  • 58.

    Grandjean P et al., 2008. The Faroes statement: human health effects of developmental exposure to chemicals in our environment. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol 102: 7375.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 59.

    Basu R , Sarovar V , Malig BJ , 2016. Association between high ambient temperature and risk of stillbirth in California. Am J Epidemiol 183: 894901.

  • 60.

    Martin WJ et al., 2013. Household air pollution in low- and middle-income countries: health risks and research priorities. PLoS Med 10: e1001455.

  • 61.

    Hartinger SM , Commodore AA , Hattendorf J , Lanata CF , Gil AI , Verastegui H , Aguilar-Villalobos M , Mäusezahl D , Naeher LP , 2013. Chimney stoves modestly improved indoor air quality measurements compared with traditional open fire stoves: results from a small-scale intervention study in rural Peru. Indoor Air 23: 342352.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 62.

    Li Z , Sjödin A , Romanoff LC , Horton K , Fitzgerald CL , Eppler A , Aguilar-Villalobos M , Naeher LP , 2011. Evaluation of exposure reduction to indoor air pollution in stove intervention projects in Peru by urinary biomonitoring of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon metabolites. Environ Int 37: 11571163.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 63.

    Vicedo-Cabrera AM et al., 2021. The burden of heat-related mortality attributable to recent human-induced climate change. Nat Clim Chang 11: 492500.

  • 64.

    Harrington LJ , Frame D , King AD , Otto FEL , 2018. How uneven are changes to impact-relevant climate hazards in a 1.5°C world and beyond? Geophys Res Lett 45: 66726680.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 65.

    Stone K , Blinn N , Spencer R , 2022. Mental health impacts of climate change on women: a scoping review. Curr Environ Health Rep 9: 228243.

  • 66.

    Clayton S , 2021. Climate change and mental health. Curr Environ Health Rep 8: 16.

  • 67.

    Ajibade I , McBean G , Bezner-Kerr R , 2013. Urban flooding in Lagos, Nigeria: patterns of vulnerability and resilience among women. Glob Environ Change 23: 17141725.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 68.

    Thurston AM , Stöckl H , Ranganathan M , 2021. Natural hazards, disasters and violence against women and girls: a global mixed-methods systematic review. BMJ Glob Health 6: e004377.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 69.

    Bell SA , Folkerth LA , 2016. Women’s mental health and intimate partner violence following natural disaster: a scoping review. Prehosp Disaster Med 31: 648657.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 70.

    van Daalen KR et al., 2022. Extreme events and gender-based violence: a mixed-methods systematic review. Lancet Planet Health 6: e504e523.

  • 71.

    Brown LJ , Lowe H , Gibbs A , Smith C , Mannell J , 2023. High-risk contexts for violence against women: using latent class analysis to understand structural and contextual drivers of intimate partner violence at the national level. J Interpers Violence. 38: NP1007NP1039.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 72.

    Halton M , 2018. Climate Change ‘Impacts Women More than Men’. BBC News. Available at: https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-43294221. Accessed September 18, 2022.

    • PubMed
    • Export Citation
  • 73.

    Klugman J , 2022. The Gender Dimensions of Forced Displacement: A Synthesis of New Research. Reliefweb. Available at: https://reliefweb.int/report/world/gender-dimensions-forced-displacement-synthesis-new-research. Accessed September 18, 2022.

    • PubMed
    • Export Citation
  • 74.

    Austin KF , McKinney LA , 2016. Disaster devastation in poor nations: the direct and indirect effects of gender equality, ecological losses, and development. Soc Forces 95: 355380.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 75.

    Sultana N , 2022. Understanding the economic dimensions of women’s vulnerability during cyclones: the Bangladesh perspective. Int J Disaster Risk Reduct 70: 102730.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 76.

    CARE , 2022. Care Climate Justice Strategy 2030. Available at: https://careclimatechange.org/explore/our-strategy/. Accessed September 18, 2022.

    • PubMed
    • Export Citation
  • 77.

    Center for Global Development Developed Countries are Responsible for 79 Percent of Historical Carbon Emissions. Available at: https://www.cgdev.org/media/who-caused-climate-change-historically. Accessed September 18, 2022.

    • PubMed
    • Export Citation

Author Notes

Address correspondence to Britt Wray, Center for Innovation in Global Health, Stanford University, 1701 Page Mill Rd., Palo Alto, CA 94304. E-mail: bwray@stanford.edu

Although we refer to women throughout this article, we acknowledge the social construction of gender and that marginalized gender identities may experience the gender inequities discussed similarly or differently9 depending on contextual factors, such as cultural norms, biology, and other intersecting identities.

Authors’ addresses: Britt Wray and Elaine C. Flores, Center for Innovation in Global Health, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA, and Center on Climate Change & Planetary Health, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom, E-mails: bwray@stanford.edu and elaine.flores@lshtm.ac.uk. Erika M. Veidis, Ola Alani, Allison A. Phillips, and Michele Barry, Center for Innovation in Global Health, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA, E-mails: eveidis@stanford.edu, oalani@stanford.edu, allisonaphillips@stanford.edu, and michele.barry@stanford.edu.

  • 1.

    Kartha S , Kemp-Benedict E , Ghosh E , Nazareth A , Gore T , 2020. The Carbon Inequality Era: An Assessment of the Global Distribution of Consumption Emissions among Individuals from 1990 to 2015 and Beyond. Oxfam and Stockholm Environment Institute. Available at: https://policy-practice.oxfam.org/resources/the-carbon-inequality-era-an-assessment-of-the-global-distribution-of-consumpti-621049/. Accessed September 16, 2022.

    • PubMed
    • Export Citation
  • 2.

    Ortiz-Ospina E , Roser M , 2018. Economic Inequality by Gender. Our World in Data. Available at: https://ourworldindata.org/economic-inequality-by-gender#citation. Accessed September 16, 2022.

    • PubMed
    • Export Citation
  • 3.

    Pearse R , 2017. Gender and climate change. Wiley Interdiscip Rev Clim Change 8: e451.

  • 4.

    Rao N , Lawson ET , Raditloaneng WN , Solomon D , Angula MN , 2017. Gendered vulnerabilities to climate change: insights from the semi-arid regions of Africa and Asia. Clim Dev 11: 1426.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 5.

    van Daalen K , Jung L , Dhatt R , Phelan AL , 2020. Climate change and gender-based health disparities. Lancet Planet Health 4: e44e45.

  • 6.

    de Paula N , Jung L , Mar K , Bowen K , Maglakelidze M , Fünderich M , Otieno M , El Omrani O , Baunach S , Gepp S , 2021. A planetary health blind spot: the untapped potential of women to safeguard nature and human resilience in LMICs. Lancet Planet Health 5: e109e110.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 7.

    Kaijser A , Kronsell A , 2014. Climate change through the lens of intersectionality. Env Polit 23: 417433.

  • 8.

    Lorde A , 2018. The Master’s Tools Will Never Dismantle the Master’s House. London, United Kingdom: Penguin UK.

  • 9.

    Lorber J , Grusky D & Hill J Inequality in the 21st Century: A Reader. New York, NY: Routledge, 347352.

  • 10.

    Nugent C , Shandra JM , 2009. State environmental protection efforts, women’s status, and world polity. Organ Environ 22: 208229.

  • 11.

    Mavisakalyan A , Tarverdi Y , 2019. Gender and climate change: do female parliamentarians make difference? Eur J Polit Econ 56: 151164.

  • 12.

    Norgaard K , York R , 2016. Gender equality and state environmentalism. Gend Soc 19: 506522.

  • 13.

    Ramstetter L , Habersack F , 2020. Do women make a difference? Analysing environmental attitudes and actions of members of the European Parliament. Env Polit 29: 10631084.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 14.

    Fredriksson PG , Wang L , 2011. Sex and environmental policy in the U.S. House of Representatives. Econ Lett 113: 228230.

  • 15.

    Cook NJ , Grillos T , Andersson KP , 2019. Gender quotas increase the equality and effectiveness of climate policy interventions. Nat Clim Chang 9: 330334.

  • 16.

    Agarwal B , 2010. Gender and Green Governance: The Political Economy of Women’s Presence Within and Beyond Community Forestry. New Delhi, India: Oxford University Press.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 17.

    Boehm S et al., 2021. State Of Climate Action 2021: Systems Transformations Required to Limit Global Warming to 1.5°C. World Resources Institute. Available at: https://www.wri.org/research/state-climate-action-2021. Accessed September 18, 2022.

    • PubMed
    • Export Citation
  • 18.

    Wilkinson K , 2019. The Woman Who Discovered the Cause of Global Warming was Long Overlooked. Her Story is a Reminder to Champion All Women Leading on Climate. Time. Available at: https://time.com/5626806/eunice-foote-women-climate-science/. Accessed September 19, 2022.

    • PubMed
    • Export Citation
  • 19.

    Lincoln AE , Pincus S , Koster JB , Leboy PS , 2012. The Matilda effect in science: awards and prizes in the US, 1990s and 2000s. Soc Stud Sci 42: 307320.

  • 20.

    Liverman D et al., 2022. Survey of gender bias in the IPCC. Nature 602: 3032.

  • 21.

    UNESCO Institute for Statistics , 2019. Women in Science. Available at: http://uis.unesco.org/en/topic/women-science. Accessed September 19, 2022.

    • PubMed
    • Export Citation
  • 22.

    Tamman M , 2021. The Reuters Hot List of 1,000 Top Climate Scientists. Reuters. Available at: https://www.reuters.com/investigates/special-report/climate-change-scientists-list/. Accessed September 16, 2022.

    • PubMed
    • Export Citation
  • 23.

    Wang MT , Degol JL , 2017. Gender gap in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM): current knowledge, implications for practice, policy, and future directions. Educ Psychol Rev 29: 119140.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 24.

    Su J , Yang W , Zhong Y , 2022. Influences of gender and socioeconomic status on children’s use of robotics in early childhood education: a systematic review. Early Educ Dev 21: 17.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 25.

    Sahin A , Mohr-Schroeder MJ , 2019. STEM Education 2.0: Myths and Truths–What Has K-12 STEM Education Research Taught Us? Leiden, Boston: Brill Sense.

  • 26.

    World Economic Forum , 2021. Global Gender Gap Report 2021. Available at: https://www.weforum.org/reports/global-gender-gap-report-2021/digest/?DAG=3&gclid=Cj0KCQjw94WZBhDtARIsAKxWG-84X9Tud66C3jNvYb433E5pNiS7merUdacVCcJoxgGjvguSNc-66T4aAodmEALw_wcB. Accessed September 16, 2022.

    • PubMed
    • Export Citation
  • 27.

    Scottish Government , 2021. Gender Equality and Climate Change: Glasgow Women’s Leadership Statement. Available at: http://www.gov.scot/publications/glasgow-womens-leadership-statement-gender-equality-climate-change/. Accessed September 17, 2022.

    • PubMed
    • Export Citation
  • 28.

    United Nations Secretary-General , 2019. Report of the Secretary-General on the 2019 Climate Action Summit and the Way Forward in 2020. Available at: https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/3850027?ln=en. Accessed September 17, 2022.

    • PubMed
    • Export Citation
  • 29.

    Generation Equality , 2021. Action for Climate Justice Action Coalition. Available at: https://forum.generationequality.org/sites/default/files/2021-10/Feminist%20Action%20for%20Climate%20Justice%20Action%20Coalition%20-%20Collective%20Commitments.pdf. Accessed September 17, 2022.

    • PubMed
    • Export Citation
  • 30.

    United Nations Women, Research and Data Section , 2021. Beyond COVID-19: A Feminist Plan for Sustainability and Social Justice. Available at: https://www.unwomen.org/sites/default/files/Headquarters/Attachments/Sections/Library/Publications/2021/Feminist-plan-for-sustainability-and-social-justice-en.pdf. Accessed September 17, 2022.

    • PubMed
    • Export Citation
  • 31.

    United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The Gender Action Plan. Available at: https://unfccc.int/topics/gender/workstreams/the-gender-action-plan. Accessed September 17, 2022.

    • PubMed
    • Export Citation
  • 32.

    United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , 2021. Overrepresentation of Men in UN Climate Process Persists. Available at: https://unfccc.int/news/overrepresentation-of-men-in-un-climate-process-persists. Accessed September 17, 2022.

    • PubMed
    • Export Citation
  • 33.

    Hodgson C , 2016. Climate Leaders Protest Against Lack of Women at High Levels in UN Summit. Financial Times. Available at: https://www.ft.com/content/ae1f6fba-641e-46c1-a6ba-3d960d0bc9f6. Accessed September 17, 2022.

    • PubMed
    • Export Citation
  • 34.

    United Nations Climate Change [@UNFCC] , 2023. Did You Know that Only 20% of National Delegations at COP27 were Headed by Women? #WomenInMultilateralism Day [Tweet]. Twitter. Available at: https://twitter.com/UNFCCC/status/1618265882144411650. Accessed January 31, 2023.

    • PubMed
    • Export Citation
  • 35.

    She Changes Climate Homepage. Available at: https://www.shechangesclimate.org/. Accessed January 31, 2023.

    • PubMed
    • Export Citation
  • 36.

    Haq SN , Rebane T , 2023. UAE Appoints Oil Company Boss as President of the COP28 Climate Conference, Alarming Climate Groups. CNN. Available at: https://www.cnn.com/2023/01/12/world/cop28-uae-sultan-al-jaber-president-climate-intl/index.html. Accessed February 3, 2023.

    • PubMed
    • Export Citation
  • 37.

    Langer A et al., 2015. Women and health: the key for sustainable development. Lancet 386: 11651210.

  • 38.

    Watts N et al., 2019. The 2019 report of The Lancet Countdown on health and climate change: ensuring that the health of a child born today is not defined by a changing climate. Lancet 394: 18361878.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 39.

    Rylander C , Øyvind Odland J , Manning Sandanger T , 2013. Climate change and the potential effects on maternal and pregnancy outcomes: an assessment of the most vulnerable–the mother, fetus, and newborn child. Glob Health Action 6: 19538.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 40.

    Arroyo V , Díaz J , Carmona R , Ortiz C , Linares C , 2016. Impact of air pollution and temperature on adverse birth outcomes: Madrid, 2001–2009. Environ Pollut 218: 11541161.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 41.

    Naz F , Saqib SE , 2021. Gender-based differences in flood vulnerability among men and women in the char farming households of Bangladesh. Nat Hazards 106: 655677.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 42.

    Atkinson AB , Casarico A , Voitchovsky S , 2018. Top incomes and the gender divide. J Econ Inequal 16: 225256.

  • 43.

    Camey IC , Sabater L , Owren C , Boyer AE , Wen J , 2020. Gender-Based Violence and Environment Linkages: The Violence of Inequality. International Union for Conservation of Nature. Available at: https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/files/documents/2020-002-En.pdf. Accessed September 19, 2022.

    • PubMed
    • Export Citation
  • 44.

    Sorensen C , Murray V , Lemery J , Balbus J , 2018. Climate change and women’s health: impacts and policy directions. PLoS Med 15: e1002603.

  • 45.

    Sophie AE , De Vries A , Stephan R , Thies F , Kabir K , Maruo M , 2021. Gender Dimensions of Disaster Risk and Resilience: Existing Evidence. World Bank. Available at: https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/35202. Accessed September 18, 2022.

    • PubMed
    • Export Citation
  • 46.

    Kerblat Y , Arab A , Walsh BJ , Simpson AL , Hallegatte S , 2021. Overlooked: Examining the Impact of Disasters and Climate Shocks on Poverty in the Europe and Central Asia Region. World Bank, Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery. Available at: https://documents.worldbank.org/en/publication/documents-reports/documentdetail/493181607687673440/overlooked-examining-the-impact-of-disasters-and-climate-shocks-on-poverty-in-the-europe-and-central-asia-region. Accessed September 18, 2022.

    • PubMed
    • Export Citation
  • 47.

    World Bank , 2021. Gender-Responsive Disaster Preparedness and Recovery in the Caribbean: Desk Review. Available at: https://www.gfdrr.org/en/publication/gender-responsive-disaster-preparedness-and-recovery-caribbean-desk-review. Accessed September 18, 2022.

    • PubMed
    • Export Citation
  • 48.

    Neumayer E , Plümper T , 2008. The gendered nature of natural disasters: the impact of catastrophic events on the gender gap in life expectancy, 1981–2002. Ann Am Assoc Geogr 97: 551566.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 49.

    Williams PC , Bartlett AW , Howard‐Jones A , McMullan B , Khatami A , Britton PN , Marais BJ , 2021. Impact of climate change and biodiversity collapse on the global emergence and spread of infectious diseases. Paediatr Child Health 57: 18111818.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 50.

    Chattu VK , Yaya S , 2020. Emerging infectious diseases and outbreaks: implications for women’s reproductive health and rights in resource-poor settings. Reprod Health 17: 15.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 51.

    Chersich MF , Wright CY , Venter F , Rees H , Scorgie F , Erasmus B , 1884. Impacts of climate change on health and wellbeing in South Africa. Int J Environ Res Public Health 15: 1984.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 52.

    Wenham C , Nunes J , Correa Matta G , de Oliveira Nogueira C , Aparecida Valente P , Pimenta DN , 2020. Gender mainstreaming as a pathway for sustainable arbovirus control in Latin America. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 14: e0007954.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 53.

    World Food Programme , 2021. WFP Gender Policy (2022–2026). Available at: https://executiveboard.wfp.org/document_download/WFP-0000132139. Accessed September 18, 2022.

    • PubMed
    • Export Citation
  • 54.

    Watts N et al., 2015. Health and climate change: policy responses to protect public health. Lancet 386: 18611914.

  • 55.

    Smith MR , Myers SS , 2018. Impact of anthropogenic CO2 emissions on global human nutrition. Nat Clim Chang 8: 834839.

  • 56.

    Asfaw S , Maggio G , 2018. Gender, weather shocks and welfare: evidence from Malawi. J Dev Stud 54: 271291.

  • 57.

    Woodruff TJ , Janssen SJ , Guillette LJ , Giudice LC , 2010. Environmental Impacts on Reproductive Health and Fertility. Cambridge University Press. Available at: https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/environmental-impacts-on-reproductive-health-and-fertility/66E0350862AEAF33AA758B8BE5CB3EC7#fndtn-contents. Accessed September 18, 2022.

    • PubMed
    • Export Citation
  • 58.

    Grandjean P et al., 2008. The Faroes statement: human health effects of developmental exposure to chemicals in our environment. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol 102: 7375.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 59.

    Basu R , Sarovar V , Malig BJ , 2016. Association between high ambient temperature and risk of stillbirth in California. Am J Epidemiol 183: 894901.

  • 60.

    Martin WJ et al., 2013. Household air pollution in low- and middle-income countries: health risks and research priorities. PLoS Med 10: e1001455.

  • 61.

    Hartinger SM , Commodore AA , Hattendorf J , Lanata CF , Gil AI , Verastegui H , Aguilar-Villalobos M , Mäusezahl D , Naeher LP , 2013. Chimney stoves modestly improved indoor air quality measurements compared with traditional open fire stoves: results from a small-scale intervention study in rural Peru. Indoor Air 23: 342352.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 62.

    Li Z , Sjödin A , Romanoff LC , Horton K , Fitzgerald CL , Eppler A , Aguilar-Villalobos M , Naeher LP , 2011. Evaluation of exposure reduction to indoor air pollution in stove intervention projects in Peru by urinary biomonitoring of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon metabolites. Environ Int 37: 11571163.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 63.

    Vicedo-Cabrera AM et al., 2021. The burden of heat-related mortality attributable to recent human-induced climate change. Nat Clim Chang 11: 492500.

  • 64.

    Harrington LJ , Frame D , King AD , Otto FEL , 2018. How uneven are changes to impact-relevant climate hazards in a 1.5°C world and beyond? Geophys Res Lett 45: 66726680.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 65.

    Stone K , Blinn N , Spencer R , 2022. Mental health impacts of climate change on women: a scoping review. Curr Environ Health Rep 9: 228243.

  • 66.

    Clayton S , 2021. Climate change and mental health. Curr Environ Health Rep 8: 16.

  • 67.

    Ajibade I , McBean G , Bezner-Kerr R , 2013. Urban flooding in Lagos, Nigeria: patterns of vulnerability and resilience among women. Glob Environ Change 23: 17141725.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 68.

    Thurston AM , Stöckl H , Ranganathan M , 2021. Natural hazards, disasters and violence against women and girls: a global mixed-methods systematic review. BMJ Glob Health 6: e004377.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 69.

    Bell SA , Folkerth LA , 2016. Women’s mental health and intimate partner violence following natural disaster: a scoping review. Prehosp Disaster Med 31: 648657.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 70.

    van Daalen KR et al., 2022. Extreme events and gender-based violence: a mixed-methods systematic review. Lancet Planet Health 6: e504e523.

  • 71.

    Brown LJ , Lowe H , Gibbs A , Smith C , Mannell J , 2023. High-risk contexts for violence against women: using latent class analysis to understand structural and contextual drivers of intimate partner violence at the national level. J Interpers Violence. 38: NP1007NP1039.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 72.

    Halton M , 2018. Climate Change ‘Impacts Women More than Men’. BBC News. Available at: https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-43294221. Accessed September 18, 2022.

    • PubMed
    • Export Citation
  • 73.

    Klugman J , 2022. The Gender Dimensions of Forced Displacement: A Synthesis of New Research. Reliefweb. Available at: https://reliefweb.int/report/world/gender-dimensions-forced-displacement-synthesis-new-research. Accessed September 18, 2022.

    • PubMed
    • Export Citation
  • 74.

    Austin KF , McKinney LA , 2016. Disaster devastation in poor nations: the direct and indirect effects of gender equality, ecological losses, and development. Soc Forces 95: 355380.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 75.

    Sultana N , 2022. Understanding the economic dimensions of women’s vulnerability during cyclones: the Bangladesh perspective. Int J Disaster Risk Reduct 70: 102730.

    • PubMed
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 76.

    CARE , 2022. Care Climate Justice Strategy 2030. Available at: https://careclimatechange.org/explore/our-strategy/. Accessed September 18, 2022.

    • PubMed
    • Export Citation
  • 77.

    Center for Global Development Developed Countries are Responsible for 79 Percent of Historical Carbon Emissions. Available at: https://www.cgdev.org/media/who-caused-climate-change-historically. Accessed September 18, 2022.

    • PubMed
    • Export Citation
Past two years Past Year Past 30 Days
Abstract Views 0 0 0
Full Text Views 5314 2621 441
PDF Downloads 1895 581 46
 

 

 

 
 
Affiliate Membership Banner
 
 
Research for Health Information Banner
 
 
CLOCKSS
 
 
 
Society Publishers Coalition Banner
Save