ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
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EndNote
-
1.
Lakshminarayanan S, Jayalakshmy R, 2015. Diarrheal diseases among children in India: current scenario and future perspectives. J Nat Sci Biol Med 6: 24–28.
-
2.
Bhan MK, 2013. Accelerated progress to reduce under-5 mortality in India. Lancet Glob Health 1: E172–E173.
-
3.
Bain R, Cronk R, Wright J, Yang H, Slaymaker T, Bartram J, 2014. Fecal contamination of drinking-water in low- and middle-income countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS Med 11: e1001644.
-
4.
Falconi TMA, Kulinkina AV, Mohan VR, Francis MR, Kattula D, Sarkar R, Ward H, Kang G, Balraj V, Naumova EN, 2017. Quantifying tap-to-household water quality deterioration in urban communities in Vellore, India: the impact of spatial assumptions. Int J Hyg Environ Health 220: 29–36.
-
5.
Brick T, Primrose B, Chandrasekhar R, Roy S, Muliyil J, Kang G, 2004. Water contamination in urban south India: household storage practices and their implications for water safety and enteric infections. Int J Hyg Environ Health 207: 473–480.
-
6.
Firth J, Balraj V, Muliyil J, Roy S, Rani LM, Chandresekhar R, Kang G, 2010. Point-of-use interventions to decrease contamination of drinking water: a randomized, controlled pilot study on efficacy, effectiveness, and acceptability of closed containers, Moringa oleifera, and in-home chlorination in rural south India. Am J Trop Med Hyg 82: 759–765.
-
7.
Coffey D, Spears D, Vyas S, 2017. Switching to sanitation: understanding latrine adoption in a representative panel of rural Indian households. Soc Sci Med 188: 41–50.
-
8.
Levy K, Nelson KL, Hubbard A, Eisenberg JN, 2012. Rethinking indicators of microbial drinking water quality for health studies in tropical developing countries: case study in northern coastal Ecuador. Am J Trop Med Hyg 86: 499–507.
-
9.
Trevett AF, Carter R, Tyrrel S, 2004. Water quality deterioration: a study of household drinking water quality in rural Honduras. Int J Environ Health Res 14: 273–283.
-
10.
Elala D, Labhasetwar P, Tyrrel SF, 2011. Deterioration in water quality from supply chain to household and appropriate storage in the context of intermittent water supplies. Water Sci Technol Water Supply 11: 400–408.
-
11.
Eshcol J, Mahapatra P, Keshapagu S, 2009. Is fecal contamination of drinking water after collection associated with household water handling and hygiene practices? A study of urban slum households in Hyderabad, India. J Water Health 7: 145–154.
-
12.
Navab-Daneshmand T, Friedrich MND, Gachter M, Montealegre MC, Mlambo LS, Nhiwatiwa T, Mosler HJ, Julian TR, 2018. Escherichia coli contamination across multiple environmental compartments (soil, hands, drinking water, and handwashing water) in urban Harare: correlations and risk factors. Am J Trop Med Hyg 98: 803–813.
-
13.
Schriewer A, Odagiri M, Wuertz S, Misra PR, Panigrahi P, Clasen T, Jenkins MW, 2015. Human and animal fecal contamination of community water sources, stored drinking water and hands in rural India measured with validated microbial source tracking assays. Am J Trop Med Hyg 93: 509–516.
-
14.
Pickering AJ et al. 2010. Hands, water, and health: fecal contamination in Tanzanian communities with improved, non-networked water supplies. Environ Sci Technol 44: 3267–3272.
-
15.
Rufener S, Mausezahl D, Mosler HJ, Weingartner R, 2010. Quality of drinking-water at source and point-of-consumption-drinking cup as a high potential recontamination risk: a field study in Bolivia. J Health Popul Nutr 28: 34–41.
-
16.
Harris AR, Davis J, Boehm AB, 2013. Mechanisms of post-supply contamination of drinking water in Bagamoyo, Tanzania. J Water Health 11: 543–554.
-
17.
Pickering AJ, Julian TR, Mamuya S, Boehm AB, Davis J, 2011. Bacterial hand contamination among Tanzanian mothers varies temporally and following household activities. Trop Med Int Health 16: 233–239.
-
18.
Pickering AJ, Julian TR, Marks SJ, Mattioli MC, Boehm AB, Schwab KJ, Davis J, 2012. Fecal contamination and diarrheal pathogens on surfaces and in soils among Tanzanian households with and without improved sanitation. Environ Sci Technol 46: 5736–5743.
-
19.
Reygadas F, Gruber JS, Ray I, Nelson KL, 2015. Field efficacy evaluation and post-treatment contamination risk assessment of an ultraviolet disinfection and safe storage system. Water Res 85: 74–84.
-
20.
Levy K, Anderson L, Robb KA, Cevallos W, Trueba G, Eisenberg JN, 2014. Household effectiveness vs. laboratory efficacy of point-of-use chlorination. Water Res 54: 69–77.
-
21.
Kumpel E, Nelson KL, 2016. Intermittent water supply: prevalence, practice, and microbial water quality. Environ Sci Technol 50: 542–553.
-
22.
WHO/UNICEF, 2012. JMP Progress on Drinking Water and Sanitation. Geneva, Switzerland: Water Health Organization.
-
23.
Fotedar R, 2001. Vector potential of houseflies (Musca domestica) in the transmission of Vibrio cholerae in India. Acta Trop 78: 31–34.
-
24.
Colford JM et al. 2005. A randomized, controlled trial of in-home drinking water intervention to reduce gastrointestinal illness. Am J Epidemiol 161: 472–482.
-
25.
WHO, 2006. Guidelines for the Safe Use of Wastewater, Excreta and Greywater. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.
-
26.
Pickering AJ et al. 2010. Hands, water, and health: fecal contamination in Tanzanian communities with improved, non-networked water supplies. Environ Sci Technol 44: 3267–3272.
-
27.
Dasgupta R, 2008. Exploring intra-household factors for diarrhoeal diseases: a study in slums of Delhi, India. J Water Health 6: 289–299.
-
28.
Gupta P, Murali MV, Seth A, 1998. Epidemiology of diarrhea in urban slums. Indian Pediatr 35: 147–151.
-
29.
Jensen PK, Ensink JH, Jayasinghe G, van der Hoek W, Cairncross S, Dalsgaard A, 2002. Domestic transmission routes of pathogens: the problem of in-house contamination of drinking water during storage in developing countries. Trop Med Int Health 7: 604–609.
-
30.
Byappanahalli MN, Roll BM, Fujioka RS, 2012. Evidence for occurrence, persistence, and growth potential of Escherichia coli and enterococci in Hawaii’s soil environments. Microbes Environ 27: 164–170.
-
31.
Ishii S, Hansen DL, Hicks RE, Sadowsky MJ, 2007. Beach sand and sediments are temporal sinks and sources of Escherichia coli in Lake Superior. Environ Sci Technol 41: 2203–2209.
-
32.
Odagiri M et al. 2016. Human fecal and pathogen exposure pathways in rural Indian villages and the effect of increased latrine coverage. Water Res 100: 232–244.
-
33.
Odagiri M, Schriewer A, Hanley K, Wuertz S, Misra PR, Panigrahi P, Jenkins MW, 2015. Validation of Bacteroidales quantitative PCR assays targeting human and animal fecal contamination in the public and domestic domains in India. Sci Total Environ 502: 462–470.
-
34.
Oswald WE, Lescano AG, Bern C, Calderon MM, Cabrera L, Gilman RH, 2007. Fecal contamination of drinking water within peri-urban households, Lima, Peru. Am J Trop Med Hyg 77: 699–704.
-
35.
Clasen T, Roberts I, Rabie T, Schmidt W, Cairncross S, 2006. Interventions to improve water quality for preventing diarrhoea. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 10: CD004794.
-
36.
Schmidt WP, Cairncross S, 2009. Household water treatment in poor populations: is there enough evidence for scaling up now? Environ Sci Technol 43: 986–992.
-
37.
Wilkes G, Edge T, Gannon V, Jokinen C, Lyautey E, Medeiros D, Neumann N, Ruecker N, Topp E, Lapen DR, 2009. Seasonal relationships among indicator bacteria, pathogenic bacteria, Cryptosporidium oocysts, Giardia cysts, and hydrological indices for surface waters within an agricultural landscape. Water Res 43: 2209–2223.
-
38.
Gruber JS, Ercumen A, Colford JM Jr., 2014. Coliform bacteria as indicators of diarrheal risk in household drinking water: systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One 9: e107429.
-
39.
WHO, 2013. Water-Related Diseases. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.
-
40.
Wu J, Long SC, Das D, Dorner SM, 2011. Are microbial indicators and pathogens correlated? A statistical analysis of 40 years of research. J Water Health 9: 265–278.
| Past two years | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 478 | 298 | 24 |
| Full Text Views | 843 | 8 | 0 |
| PDF Downloads | 371 | 11 | 0 |
Drinking Water Safety: Role of Hand Hygiene, Sanitation Facility, and Water System in Semi-Urban Areas of India
Arti Kundu
Arti Kundu
School of Veterinary Medicine, One Health Institute, University of California, Davis, California;
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Woutrina A. Smith
Woutrina A. Smith
School of Veterinary Medicine, One Health Institute, University of California, Davis, California;
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Danielle Harvey
Danielle Harvey
Department of Public Health Sciences, School of Medicine, University of California, Davis, California;
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Stefan Wuertz
Stefan Wuertz
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Davis, California;
Singapore Centre for Environmental Life Sciences Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore;
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
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Singapore Centre for Environmental Life Sciences Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore;
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
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Poor drinking water quality is one of the main causes of acute diarrheal disease in developing countries. The study investigated the relationship between fecal contamination of hands, stored drinking water, and source waters in India. We further evaluated the environmental and behavioral factors associated with recontamination of water between collection and consumption. The bacterial contamination, that is, Escherichia coli (log10 most probable number per two hands), found on mothers’ hands (mean = 1.11, standard deviation [SD] = 1.2, N = 152) was substantially higher than that on their children younger than 5 years (mean = 0.64, SD = 1.0, and N = 152). We found a low level of E. coli (< 1 per 100 mL) in the source water samples; however, E. coli contamination in stored drinking water was above the recommended guidelines of the World Health Organization. The study also found that E. coli on hands was significantly associated with E. coli in the stored drinking water (P < 0.001). Moreover, E. coli was positively associated with gastrointestinal symptoms (odds ratio 1.42, P < 0.05). In the households with elevated levels (> 100 E. coli/100 mL) of fecal contamination, we found that 43.5% had unimproved sanitation facilities, poor water handling practices, and higher diarrheal incidences. The water quality deterioration from the source to the point of consumption is significant. This necessitates effective interventions in collection, transport, storage, and extraction practices when hand–water contact is likely to occur. These findings support the role of hands in the contamination of stored drinking water and suggest that clean source water does not guarantee safe water at the point of consumption.
Author Notes
Financial support: This project was supported by NIH Research Training Grant #R25 TW009343 funded by the Fogarty International Center, the NIH Office of the Director Office of AIDS Research, the NIH Office of the Director Office of Research on Women’s Health, the NIH Office of the Director Office of Behavioral and Social Science Research, the National Institute of Mental Health, and the National Institute on Drug Abuse, as well as the University of California Global Health Institute.
Authors’ addresses: Arti Kundu, Department of Veterinary Medicine and Epidemiology, University of California, Davis, CA, E-mail: akundu@ucdavis.edu. Woutrina A. Smith, Veterinary Medicine and Epidemiology Department, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California at Davis, CA, E-mail: wasmith@ucdavis.edu. Danielle Harvey, Department of Public Health Sciences, School of Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA, E-mail: djharvey@ucdavis.edu. Stefan Wuertz, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Davis, CA, Singapore Centre for Environmental Life Sciences Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore, and School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore, E-mail: swuertz@ucdavis.edu.
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1.
Lakshminarayanan S, Jayalakshmy R, 2015. Diarrheal diseases among children in India: current scenario and future perspectives. J Nat Sci Biol Med 6: 24–28.
-
2.
Bhan MK, 2013. Accelerated progress to reduce under-5 mortality in India. Lancet Glob Health 1: E172–E173.
-
3.
Bain R, Cronk R, Wright J, Yang H, Slaymaker T, Bartram J, 2014. Fecal contamination of drinking-water in low- and middle-income countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS Med 11: e1001644.
-
4.
Falconi TMA, Kulinkina AV, Mohan VR, Francis MR, Kattula D, Sarkar R, Ward H, Kang G, Balraj V, Naumova EN, 2017. Quantifying tap-to-household water quality deterioration in urban communities in Vellore, India: the impact of spatial assumptions. Int J Hyg Environ Health 220: 29–36.
-
5.
Brick T, Primrose B, Chandrasekhar R, Roy S, Muliyil J, Kang G, 2004. Water contamination in urban south India: household storage practices and their implications for water safety and enteric infections. Int J Hyg Environ Health 207: 473–480.
-
6.
Firth J, Balraj V, Muliyil J, Roy S, Rani LM, Chandresekhar R, Kang G, 2010. Point-of-use interventions to decrease contamination of drinking water: a randomized, controlled pilot study on efficacy, effectiveness, and acceptability of closed containers, Moringa oleifera, and in-home chlorination in rural south India. Am J Trop Med Hyg 82: 759–765.
-
7.
Coffey D, Spears D, Vyas S, 2017. Switching to sanitation: understanding latrine adoption in a representative panel of rural Indian households. Soc Sci Med 188: 41–50.
-
8.
Levy K, Nelson KL, Hubbard A, Eisenberg JN, 2012. Rethinking indicators of microbial drinking water quality for health studies in tropical developing countries: case study in northern coastal Ecuador. Am J Trop Med Hyg 86: 499–507.
-
9.
Trevett AF, Carter R, Tyrrel S, 2004. Water quality deterioration: a study of household drinking water quality in rural Honduras. Int J Environ Health Res 14: 273–283.
-
10.
Elala D, Labhasetwar P, Tyrrel SF, 2011. Deterioration in water quality from supply chain to household and appropriate storage in the context of intermittent water supplies. Water Sci Technol Water Supply 11: 400–408.
-
11.
Eshcol J, Mahapatra P, Keshapagu S, 2009. Is fecal contamination of drinking water after collection associated with household water handling and hygiene practices? A study of urban slum households in Hyderabad, India. J Water Health 7: 145–154.
-
12.
Navab-Daneshmand T, Friedrich MND, Gachter M, Montealegre MC, Mlambo LS, Nhiwatiwa T, Mosler HJ, Julian TR, 2018. Escherichia coli contamination across multiple environmental compartments (soil, hands, drinking water, and handwashing water) in urban Harare: correlations and risk factors. Am J Trop Med Hyg 98: 803–813.
-
13.
Schriewer A, Odagiri M, Wuertz S, Misra PR, Panigrahi P, Clasen T, Jenkins MW, 2015. Human and animal fecal contamination of community water sources, stored drinking water and hands in rural India measured with validated microbial source tracking assays. Am J Trop Med Hyg 93: 509–516.
-
14.
Pickering AJ et al. 2010. Hands, water, and health: fecal contamination in Tanzanian communities with improved, non-networked water supplies. Environ Sci Technol 44: 3267–3272.
-
15.
Rufener S, Mausezahl D, Mosler HJ, Weingartner R, 2010. Quality of drinking-water at source and point-of-consumption-drinking cup as a high potential recontamination risk: a field study in Bolivia. J Health Popul Nutr 28: 34–41.
-
16.
Harris AR, Davis J, Boehm AB, 2013. Mechanisms of post-supply contamination of drinking water in Bagamoyo, Tanzania. J Water Health 11: 543–554.
-
17.
Pickering AJ, Julian TR, Mamuya S, Boehm AB, Davis J, 2011. Bacterial hand contamination among Tanzanian mothers varies temporally and following household activities. Trop Med Int Health 16: 233–239.
-
18.
Pickering AJ, Julian TR, Marks SJ, Mattioli MC, Boehm AB, Schwab KJ, Davis J, 2012. Fecal contamination and diarrheal pathogens on surfaces and in soils among Tanzanian households with and without improved sanitation. Environ Sci Technol 46: 5736–5743.
-
19.
Reygadas F, Gruber JS, Ray I, Nelson KL, 2015. Field efficacy evaluation and post-treatment contamination risk assessment of an ultraviolet disinfection and safe storage system. Water Res 85: 74–84.
-
20.
Levy K, Anderson L, Robb KA, Cevallos W, Trueba G, Eisenberg JN, 2014. Household effectiveness vs. laboratory efficacy of point-of-use chlorination. Water Res 54: 69–77.
-
21.
Kumpel E, Nelson KL, 2016. Intermittent water supply: prevalence, practice, and microbial water quality. Environ Sci Technol 50: 542–553.
-
22.
WHO/UNICEF, 2012. JMP Progress on Drinking Water and Sanitation. Geneva, Switzerland: Water Health Organization.
-
23.
Fotedar R, 2001. Vector potential of houseflies (Musca domestica) in the transmission of Vibrio cholerae in India. Acta Trop 78: 31–34.
-
24.
Colford JM et al. 2005. A randomized, controlled trial of in-home drinking water intervention to reduce gastrointestinal illness. Am J Epidemiol 161: 472–482.
-
25.
WHO, 2006. Guidelines for the Safe Use of Wastewater, Excreta and Greywater. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.
-
26.
Pickering AJ et al. 2010. Hands, water, and health: fecal contamination in Tanzanian communities with improved, non-networked water supplies. Environ Sci Technol 44: 3267–3272.
-
27.
Dasgupta R, 2008. Exploring intra-household factors for diarrhoeal diseases: a study in slums of Delhi, India. J Water Health 6: 289–299.
-
28.
Gupta P, Murali MV, Seth A, 1998. Epidemiology of diarrhea in urban slums. Indian Pediatr 35: 147–151.
-
29.
Jensen PK, Ensink JH, Jayasinghe G, van der Hoek W, Cairncross S, Dalsgaard A, 2002. Domestic transmission routes of pathogens: the problem of in-house contamination of drinking water during storage in developing countries. Trop Med Int Health 7: 604–609.
-
30.
Byappanahalli MN, Roll BM, Fujioka RS, 2012. Evidence for occurrence, persistence, and growth potential of Escherichia coli and enterococci in Hawaii’s soil environments. Microbes Environ 27: 164–170.
-
31.
Ishii S, Hansen DL, Hicks RE, Sadowsky MJ, 2007. Beach sand and sediments are temporal sinks and sources of Escherichia coli in Lake Superior. Environ Sci Technol 41: 2203–2209.
-
32.
Odagiri M et al. 2016. Human fecal and pathogen exposure pathways in rural Indian villages and the effect of increased latrine coverage. Water Res 100: 232–244.
-
33.
Odagiri M, Schriewer A, Hanley K, Wuertz S, Misra PR, Panigrahi P, Jenkins MW, 2015. Validation of Bacteroidales quantitative PCR assays targeting human and animal fecal contamination in the public and domestic domains in India. Sci Total Environ 502: 462–470.
-
34.
Oswald WE, Lescano AG, Bern C, Calderon MM, Cabrera L, Gilman RH, 2007. Fecal contamination of drinking water within peri-urban households, Lima, Peru. Am J Trop Med Hyg 77: 699–704.
-
35.
Clasen T, Roberts I, Rabie T, Schmidt W, Cairncross S, 2006. Interventions to improve water quality for preventing diarrhoea. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 10: CD004794.
-
36.
Schmidt WP, Cairncross S, 2009. Household water treatment in poor populations: is there enough evidence for scaling up now? Environ Sci Technol 43: 986–992.
-
37.
Wilkes G, Edge T, Gannon V, Jokinen C, Lyautey E, Medeiros D, Neumann N, Ruecker N, Topp E, Lapen DR, 2009. Seasonal relationships among indicator bacteria, pathogenic bacteria, Cryptosporidium oocysts, Giardia cysts, and hydrological indices for surface waters within an agricultural landscape. Water Res 43: 2209–2223.
-
38.
Gruber JS, Ercumen A, Colford JM Jr., 2014. Coliform bacteria as indicators of diarrheal risk in household drinking water: systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One 9: e107429.
-
39.
WHO, 2013. Water-Related Diseases. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.
-
40.
Wu J, Long SC, Das D, Dorner SM, 2011. Are microbial indicators and pathogens correlated? A statistical analysis of 40 years of research. J Water Health 9: 265–278.
| Past two years | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 478 | 298 | 24 |
| Full Text Views | 843 | 8 | 0 |
| PDF Downloads | 371 | 11 | 0 |