Authors:
, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , and
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-
1.
Amilasan AS et al. 2012. Outbreak of leptospirosis after flood, the Philippines, 2009. Emerg Infect Dis 18: 91–94.
-
2.
Lau CL, Smythe LD, Craig SB, Weinstein P, 2010. Climate change, flooding, urbanisation and leptospirosis: fuelling the fire? Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 104: 631–638.
-
3.
Reis RB et al. 2008. Impact of environment and social gradient on Leptospira infection in urban slums. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2: e228.
-
4.
Sarkar U et al. 2002. Population-based case-control investigation of risk factors for leptospirosis during an urban epidemic. Am J Trop Med Hyg 66: 605–610.
-
5.
McBride AJ, Athanazio DA, Reis MG, Ko AI, 2005. Leptospirosis. Curr Opin Infect Dis 18: 376–386.
-
6.
Fiji Ministry of Health, 2010. Fiji National Communicable Disease Surveillance and Outbreak Response Guidelines. Suva, Fiji: Fiji Ministry of Health and Medical Services.
-
7.
Ram P, 1977. History of leptospirosis in Fiji. Fiji Med J 3: 68–69.
-
8.
Victoriano AF et al. 2009. Leptospirosis in the Asia Pacific region. BMC Infect Dis 9: 147.
-
9.
Zinsstag J, Schelling E, Waltner-Toews D, Whittaker M, Tanner M, 2015. One Health: The Theory and Practice of Integrated Health Approaches. Oxfordshire, United Kingdom: Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International (CABI), 477.
-
10.
Ghosh A, Khan S, Kishore K, 2010. Leptospirosis in Fiji: incidence between 2000 to 2007 and review of literature. Fiji Med J 29: 8–14.
-
11.
Fiji Bureau of Statistics, 2012. 2007 Census of Population and Housing. Suva, Fiji: Fiji Bureau of Statistics.
-
12.
Dechet AM et al. 2012. Leptospirosis outbreak following severe flooding: a rapid assessment and mass prophylaxis campaign; Guyana, January–February 2005. PLoS One 7: e39672.
-
13.
Zaki SA, Shanbag P, 2010. Clinical manifestations of dengue and leptospirosis in children in Mumbai: an observational study. Infection 38: 285–291.
-
14.
Barcellos C, Sabroza PC, 2001. The place behind the case: leptospirosis risks and associated environmental conditions in a flood-related outbreak in Rio de Janeiro. Cad Saude Publica 17 (Suppl): 59–67.
-
15.
Ko AI, Galvao Reis M, Ribeiro Dourado CM, Johnson WD Jr, Riley LW, 1999. Urban epidemic of severe leptospirosis in Brazil. Salvador Leptospirosis Study Group. Lancet 354: 820–825.
-
16.
Casanovas-Massana A et al. 2018. Spatial and temporal dynamics of pathogenic Leptospira in surface waters from the urban slum environment. Water Res 130: 176–184.
-
17.
Fiji Meteorological Service, 2015. Fiji Meteorological Service. Available at: http://www.met.gov.fj/index.php. Accessed July 24, 2016.
-
18.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2015. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Available at: http://www.noaa.gov/. Accessed July 28, 2016.
-
19.
Stoddard RA, Gee JE, Wilkins PP, McCaustland K, Hoffmaster AR, 2009. Detection of pathogenic Leptospira spp. through TaqMan polymerase chain reaction targeting the LipL32 gene. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 64: 247–255.
-
20.
Lau CL, Watson CH, Lowry JH, David MC, Craig SB, Wynwood SJ, Kama M, Nilles EJ, 2016. Human leptospirosis infection in Fiji: an eco-epidemiological approach to identifying risk factors and environmental drivers for transmission. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 10: e0004405.
-
21.
Perez J, Goarant C, 2010. Rapid Leptospira identification by direct sequencing of the diagnostic PCR products in New Caledonia. BMC Microbiol 10: 325.
-
22.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2013. National Notifiable Diseases Surveillance System, Diseases & Conditions, Leptospirosis Summary, Leptospirosis (Leptospira interrogans) 2013 Case Definition. Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
-
23.
Levett PN, 2001. Leptospirosis. Clin Microbiol Rev 14: 296–326.
-
24.
Reller ME, Bodinayake C, Nagahawatte A, Devasiri V, Kodikara-Arachichi W, Strouse JJ, Flom JE, Dumler JS, Woods CW, 2011. Leptospirosis as frequent cause of acute febrile illness in southern Sri Lanka. Emerg Infect Dis 17: 1678–1684.
-
25.
IPCC, 2014. Climate Change 2014: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Core Writing Team, Pachauri RK and Meyer LA, eds.]. Geneva, Switzerland: IPCC, 151.
-
26.
McIver L et al. 2016. Health impacts of climate change in Pacific island countries: a regional assessment of vulnerabilities and adaptation priorities. Environ Health Perspect 124: 1707–1714.
-
27.
World Health Organization, 2008. International Health Regulations (2005), 2nd edition. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO Press.
| Past two years | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 4098 | 3741 | 901 |
| Full Text Views | 1062 | 28 | 7 |
| PDF Downloads | 503 | 21 | 4 |
A Large Leptospirosis Outbreak following Successive Severe Floods in Fiji, 2012
Eri Togami
Eri Togami
Department of Epidemiology of Microbial Diseases, Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, Connecticut;
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Mike Kama
Mike Kama
Center for Communicable Disease Control, Ministry of Health, Suva, Fiji;
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Cyrille Goarant
Cyrille Goarant
Leptospirosis Unit, Institut Pasteur in New Caledonia, Noumea, New Caledonia;
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Scott B. Craig
Scott B. Craig
School of Biomedical Sciences, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia;
Forensic and Scientific Service, WHO Leptospirosis Laboratory, Brisbane, Australia;
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Forensic and Scientific Service, WHO Leptospirosis Laboratory, Brisbane, Australia;
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Colleen Lau
Colleen Lau
Research School of Population Health, Australia National University, Canberra, Australia;
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Jana M. Ritter
Jana M. Ritter
Infectious Diseases Pathology Branch, Division of High Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia;
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Allison Imrie
Allison Imrie
School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia;
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Albert I. Ko
Albert I. Ko
Department of Epidemiology of Microbial Diseases, Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, Connecticut;
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Eric J. Nilles
Eric J. Nilles
Division of Pacific Technical Support, World Health Organization, Suva, Fiji
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Severe flooding has been linked to outbreaks of leptospirosis. Two sequential extreme flood events in Western Fiji caused the largest outbreak of leptospirosis recorded in the South Pacific, with 1,217 total suspected cases, of which 314 were probable and confirmed. Most (83%) cases occurred within 6 weeks of the flood events, displaying a biphasic epidemic curve associated with the floods. Given the temporal proximity of cases to flooding events, most of the transmission appeared to occur during or immediately after the floods; therefore, prevention of exposure to contaminated environments is a priority in the immediate flood and post-flood period. In addition, genotyping studies suggest that multiple animal reservoirs were implicated in the outbreak, reaffirming the importance of integrated human and animal health strategies for leptospirosis control.
Author Notes
Ethical approval: This study was granted scientific, technical, and ethical approval by the Fiji National Health Research and Ethics Review Committee (FNHRERC), FNRERC Number 2017.89.WES.
Authors’ addresses: Eri Togami, Department of Epidemiology of Microbial Diseases, Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, CT, and One Health Institute, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, E-mail: eri.togami1@gmail.com. Mike Kama, Department of Influenza, Fiji Centre for Communicable Disease Control, Suva, Fiji, E-mail: mnkama02@gmail.com. Cyrille Goarant, Leptospirosis Research and Expertise Unit, Réseau International des Instituts Pasteur, Institut Pasteur de Nouvelle-Calédonie, Noumea, New Caledonia, E-mail: cgoarant@pasteur.nc. Scott B. Craig, School of Biomedical Sciences, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia, and Forensic and Scientific Service, WHO Leptospirosis Laboratory, Brisbane, Australia, E-mail: scott.craig@health.qld.gov.au. Colleen Lau, Research School of Population Health, Australia National University, Canberra, Australia, E-mail: colleen.lau@anu.edu.au. Jana M. Ritter, Infectious Diseases Pathology Branch, Division of High Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Atlanta, GA, E-mail: vtr0@cdc.gov. Allison Imrie, School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia, E-mail: allison.imrie@uwa.edu.au. Albert I. Ko, Department of Epidemiology of Microbial Diseases, Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, CT, E-mail: albert.ko@yale.edu. Eric J. Nilles, Division of Pacific Technical Support, World Health Organization, Suva, Fiji, Harvard Humanitarian Initiative, Harvard University, Boston, MA, Harvard Medical School, Harvard University, Boston, MA, and Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, MA, E-mail: enilles@bwh.harvard.edu.
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1.
Amilasan AS et al. 2012. Outbreak of leptospirosis after flood, the Philippines, 2009. Emerg Infect Dis 18: 91–94.
-
2.
Lau CL, Smythe LD, Craig SB, Weinstein P, 2010. Climate change, flooding, urbanisation and leptospirosis: fuelling the fire? Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 104: 631–638.
-
3.
Reis RB et al. 2008. Impact of environment and social gradient on Leptospira infection in urban slums. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2: e228.
-
4.
Sarkar U et al. 2002. Population-based case-control investigation of risk factors for leptospirosis during an urban epidemic. Am J Trop Med Hyg 66: 605–610.
-
5.
McBride AJ, Athanazio DA, Reis MG, Ko AI, 2005. Leptospirosis. Curr Opin Infect Dis 18: 376–386.
-
6.
Fiji Ministry of Health, 2010. Fiji National Communicable Disease Surveillance and Outbreak Response Guidelines. Suva, Fiji: Fiji Ministry of Health and Medical Services.
-
7.
Ram P, 1977. History of leptospirosis in Fiji. Fiji Med J 3: 68–69.
-
8.
Victoriano AF et al. 2009. Leptospirosis in the Asia Pacific region. BMC Infect Dis 9: 147.
-
9.
Zinsstag J, Schelling E, Waltner-Toews D, Whittaker M, Tanner M, 2015. One Health: The Theory and Practice of Integrated Health Approaches. Oxfordshire, United Kingdom: Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International (CABI), 477.
-
10.
Ghosh A, Khan S, Kishore K, 2010. Leptospirosis in Fiji: incidence between 2000 to 2007 and review of literature. Fiji Med J 29: 8–14.
-
11.
Fiji Bureau of Statistics, 2012. 2007 Census of Population and Housing. Suva, Fiji: Fiji Bureau of Statistics.
-
12.
Dechet AM et al. 2012. Leptospirosis outbreak following severe flooding: a rapid assessment and mass prophylaxis campaign; Guyana, January–February 2005. PLoS One 7: e39672.
-
13.
Zaki SA, Shanbag P, 2010. Clinical manifestations of dengue and leptospirosis in children in Mumbai: an observational study. Infection 38: 285–291.
-
14.
Barcellos C, Sabroza PC, 2001. The place behind the case: leptospirosis risks and associated environmental conditions in a flood-related outbreak in Rio de Janeiro. Cad Saude Publica 17 (Suppl): 59–67.
-
15.
Ko AI, Galvao Reis M, Ribeiro Dourado CM, Johnson WD Jr, Riley LW, 1999. Urban epidemic of severe leptospirosis in Brazil. Salvador Leptospirosis Study Group. Lancet 354: 820–825.
-
16.
Casanovas-Massana A et al. 2018. Spatial and temporal dynamics of pathogenic Leptospira in surface waters from the urban slum environment. Water Res 130: 176–184.
-
17.
Fiji Meteorological Service, 2015. Fiji Meteorological Service. Available at: http://www.met.gov.fj/index.php. Accessed July 24, 2016.
-
18.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2015. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Available at: http://www.noaa.gov/. Accessed July 28, 2016.
-
19.
Stoddard RA, Gee JE, Wilkins PP, McCaustland K, Hoffmaster AR, 2009. Detection of pathogenic Leptospira spp. through TaqMan polymerase chain reaction targeting the LipL32 gene. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 64: 247–255.
-
20.
Lau CL, Watson CH, Lowry JH, David MC, Craig SB, Wynwood SJ, Kama M, Nilles EJ, 2016. Human leptospirosis infection in Fiji: an eco-epidemiological approach to identifying risk factors and environmental drivers for transmission. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 10: e0004405.
-
21.
Perez J, Goarant C, 2010. Rapid Leptospira identification by direct sequencing of the diagnostic PCR products in New Caledonia. BMC Microbiol 10: 325.
-
22.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2013. National Notifiable Diseases Surveillance System, Diseases & Conditions, Leptospirosis Summary, Leptospirosis (Leptospira interrogans) 2013 Case Definition. Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
-
23.
Levett PN, 2001. Leptospirosis. Clin Microbiol Rev 14: 296–326.
-
24.
Reller ME, Bodinayake C, Nagahawatte A, Devasiri V, Kodikara-Arachichi W, Strouse JJ, Flom JE, Dumler JS, Woods CW, 2011. Leptospirosis as frequent cause of acute febrile illness in southern Sri Lanka. Emerg Infect Dis 17: 1678–1684.
-
25.
IPCC, 2014. Climate Change 2014: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Core Writing Team, Pachauri RK and Meyer LA, eds.]. Geneva, Switzerland: IPCC, 151.
-
26.
McIver L et al. 2016. Health impacts of climate change in Pacific island countries: a regional assessment of vulnerabilities and adaptation priorities. Environ Health Perspect 124: 1707–1714.
-
27.
World Health Organization, 2008. International Health Regulations (2005), 2nd edition. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO Press.
| Past two years | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 4098 | 3741 | 901 |
| Full Text Views | 1062 | 28 | 7 |
| PDF Downloads | 503 | 21 | 4 |