Author:
- INTRODUCTION
- MATERIALS AND METHODS
- RESULTS
- Sociodemographic characteristics of the study participants.
- Child-feeding practices.
- Water safety and accessibility, sanitation, and hygiene practices.
- Nutritional status, hemoglobin levels, and diarrhea among under-five children.
- Factors associated with underweight among under-five children.
- Factors associated with stunting among under-five children.
- DISCUSSION
- Supplementary Material
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1.
Cravioto J, Delicardie ER, 1979. Nutrition, mental development and learning. Human Growth. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 481–511.
-
2.
UNICEF, WHO, World Bank, 2013. Joint Child Malnutrition Estimates–Levels and Trends. Available at: http://www.who.int/nutgrowthdb/estimates201/. Accessed March 11, 2014.
-
3.
Black RE, Cousens S, Johnson HL, Lawn JE, Rudan I, Bassani DG, Jha P, Campbell H, Walker CF, Cibulskis R, 2010. Global, regional, and national causes of child mortality in 2008: a systematic analysis. Lancet 375: 1969–1987.
-
4.
Sharifzadeh G, Mehrjoofard H, Raghebi S, 2010. Prevalence of malnutrition in under 6-year olds in South Khorasan, Iran. Iran J Pediatr 20: 435.
-
5.
Waage J, Banerji R, Campbell O, Chirwa E, Collender G, Dieltiens V, Dorward A, Godfrey-Faussett P, Hanvoravongchai P, Kingdon G, 2010. The Millennium Development Goals: a cross-sectoral analysis and principles for goal setting after 2015. Lancet 376: 991–1023.
-
6.
USAID, 2015. WASH & NUTRITION: Water and Development Strategy Implementation Brief. USAID Report, 2015. Available at: http://www.usaid.gov. Accessed November 9, 2015.
-
7.
Adelo B, Temesgen S, 2015. Undernutritional status of children in Ethiopia: application of partial proportional odds model. Turkiye Klinikleri Journal of Biostatistics 7: 77–89.
-
8.
TDHS, 2015–2016. Tanzania Demographic, Health Survey and Malaria Indicator Survey (TDHS-MIS). Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, and Rockville, MD: MoHCDGEC, MoH, NBS, OCGS, and ICF.
-
9.
Chase C, Ngure F, 2016. Multisectoral Approaches to Improving Nutrition: Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene. Available at: worldbankwater@worldbank.org or www.wsp.org. Accessed December 21, 2016.
-
10.
Humphrey JH, 2009. Child undernutrition, tropical enteropathy, toilets, and handwashing. Lancet 374: 1032–1035.
-
11.
Ngure FM, Reid BM, Humphrey JH, Mbuya MN, Pelto G, Stoltzfus RJ, 2014. Water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH), environmental enteropathy, nutrition, and early child development: making the links. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1308: 118–128.
-
12.
Morris SS, Cousens SN, Lanata CF, Kirkwood BR, 1994. Diarrhoea—defining the episode. Int J Epidemiol 23: 617–623.
-
13.
Burton MJ, Rajak SN, Hu VH, Ramadhani A, Habtamu E, Massae P, Tadesse Z, Callahan K, Emerson PM, Khaw PT, 2015. Pathogenesis of progressive scarring trachoma in Ethiopia and Tanzania and its implications for disease control: two cohort studies. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 9: e0003763.
-
14.
UNICEF, 2014. Statistical Snapshot: Child Mortality. Available at: https://data.unicef.org/resources/early-childhood-development-a-statistical-snapshot-building-better-brain. Accessed September 23, 2014.
-
15.
Prüss‐Ustün A, Bartram J, Clasen T, Colford JM, Cumming O, Curtis V, Bonjour S, Dangour AD, De France J, Fewtrell L, 2014. Burden of disease from inadequate water, sanitation and hygiene in low‐and middle‐income settings: a retrospective analysis of data from 145 countries. Trop Med Int Health 19: 894–905.
-
16.
Lunn P, Northrop-Clewes C, Downes R, 1991. Intestinal permeability, mucosal injury, and growth faltering in Gambian infants. Lancet 338: 907–910.
-
17.
Schmidt CW, 2014. Beyond malnutrition: the role of sanitation in stunted growth. Environ Health Perspect 122: A298.
-
18.
Black RE, Victora CG, Walker SP, Bhutta ZA, Christian P, De Onis M, Ezzati M, Grantham-McGregor S, Katz J, Martorell R, 2013. Maternal and child undernutrition and overweight in low-income and middle-income countries. Lancet 382: 427–451.
-
19.
Curtis V, Cairncross S, 2003. Effect of washing hands with soap on diarrhoea risk in the community: a systematic review. Lancet Infect Dis 3: 275–281.
-
20.
Lomazzi M, Borisch B, Laaser U, 2014. The Millennium Development Goals: experiences, achievements and what’s next. Glob Health Action 7: 23695.
-
21.
WHO and UNICEF, 2015. Progress on Sanitation and Drinking Water–2015 Update and MDG Assessment. Available at: https://www.unicef.org/publications/index_82419.html. Accessed September 3, 2015.
-
22.
Benova L, Cumming O, Gordon BA, Magoma M, Campbell OM, 2014. Where there is no toilet: water and sanitation environments of domestic and facility births in Tanzania. PLoS One 9: e106738.
-
23.
WHO, 2012. Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality: Recommendations. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO Press. Available at: http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/publications/2011/dwq_guidelines/en/. Accessed July 17, 2014.
-
24.
Pickering AJ, Davis J, 2012. Freshwater availability and water fetching distance affect child health in sub-Saharan Africa. Environ Sci Technol 46: 2391–2397.
-
25.
Lyimo B, Buza J, Smith W, Subbiah M, Call DR, 2016. Surface waters in northern Tanzania harbor fecal coliform and antibiotic resistant Salmonella spp. capable of horizontal gene transfer. Afr J Microbiol Res 10: 348–356.
-
26.
Lemons A, 2009. Maji Salama: Implementing Ceramic Water Filtration Technology in Arusha. MPH Candidate Thesis, Emory University, Tanzania.
-
27.
Gilman RH, Skillicorn P, 1985. Boiling of drinking-water: can a fuel-scarce community afford it? Bull World Health Organ 63: 157.
-
28.
Thomas J, Holbro N, Young D, 2013. A Review of Sanitation and Hygiene in Tanzania. London, United Kingdom: Department for International Development.
-
29.
Gautam O, 2015. Food Hygiene Intervention to Improve Food Hygiene Behaviours, and Reduce Food Contamination in Nepal: An Exploratory Trial. Available at: http://researchonline.lshtm.ac.uk/2531624/. Accessed November 1, 2015.
-
30.
Gautam O, Cairncross S, Cavill S, Curtis V, 2017. Trial of a novel intervention to improve multiple food hygiene behaviors in Nepal. Am J Trop Med Hyg 96: 1415–1426.
-
31.
Sheth M, Dwivedi R, 2006. Complementary foods associated diarrhea. Indian J Pediatr 73: 61–64.
-
32.
Fawzy A, Arpadi S, Kankasa C, Sinkala M, Mwiya M, Thea DM, Aldrovandi GM, Kuhn L, 2011. Early weaning increases diarrhea morbidity and mortality among uninfected children born to HIV-infected mothers in Zambia. J Infect Dis 203: 1222–1230.
-
33.
Aheto JMK, Keegan TJ, Taylor BM, Diggle PJ, 2015. Childhood malnutrition and its determinants among under‐five children in Ghana. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol 29: 552–561.
-
34.
Bowen PA, Hillyard J, Hartwig K, Langford S, Harvey M, James S, 2010. The Whole Village Project Village Reports for Elerai, Eworendeke, Kimoukuwa, Tingatinga, Kiserian, Sinya, and Kitendeni in Longido District. Available at: wholevillage.umn.edu/documents/Longido.pdf. Accessed August 5, 2010.
-
35.
Bowen PA, Landry K, Espejo N, Susan James S, 2010. The Whole Village Project Village Reports for Engaruka, Migombani, Naitolia, and Selela in Monduli District. Available at: wholevillage.umn.edu/documents/Longido.pdf. Accessed July 23, 2010.
-
36.
TDHS, 2010. Tanzania Demographic and Health Survey, 2010. Available at: www.nbs.go.tz. Accessed March 4, 2015.
-
37.
De Onis M, 2006. WHO child growth standards based on length/height, weight and age. Acta Paediatr 95: 76–85.
-
38.
De Benoist B, McLean E, Egli I, Cogswell M, 2008. WHO Global Database on Anaemia. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization, 1993–2005.
-
39.
De Onis M, Brown D, Blossner M, Borghi E, 2012. Levels and Trends in Child Malnutrition. Washington, DC: UNICEF-WHO-The World Bank Joint Child Malnutrition Estimates.
-
40.
UNICEF, 2015. Progress on Sanitation and Drinking Water–2015 Update and MDG Assessment. Available at: http://www.unicef.org. Accessed October 11, 2015.
-
41.
Lyimo C, Shayo R, Lyimo TJ, 2007. Community awareness on microbial water pollution and its effects on health development in urban Tanzania: a case study of Tabata and Kiwalani wards in Ilala District in Dar es Salaam region. Tanzania Journal of Development Studies 7: 103–114.
-
42.
Devoto F, Duflo E, Dupas P, Parienté W, Pons V, 2012. Happiness on tap: piped water adoption in urban Morocco. Am Econ J Econ Policy 4: 68–99.
-
43.
Chirande L, Charwe D, Mbwana H, Victor R, Kimboka S, Issaka AI, Baines SK, Dibley MJ, Agho KE, 2015. Determinants of stunting and severe stunting among under-fives in Tanzania: evidence from the 2010 cross-sectional household survey. BMC Pediatr 15: 165.
-
44.
Hong R, Banta JE, Betancourt JA, 2006. Relationship between household wealth inequality and chronic childhood under-nutrition in Bangladesh. Int J Equity Health 5: 1.
-
45.
Dangour AD, Watson L, Cumming O, Boisson S, Che Y, Velleman Y, Cavill S, Allen E, Uauy R, 2013. Interventions to improve water quality and supply, sanitation and hygiene practices, and their effects on the nutritional status of children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev CD009382.
-
46.
UNICEF, 2009. Diarrhoea: Why Children Are Still Dying and What Can Be Done. Available at: http://www. unicef. org/media/files/Final_Diarrhoea_Report_October_2009_final. pdf.
-
47.
Safari JG, Masanyiwa ZS, Lwelamira JE, 2015. Prevalence and factors associated with child malnutrition in Nzega District, rural Tanzania. Current Research Journal of Social Sciences 7: 94–100.
-
48.
Fenn B, Bulti AT, Nduna T, Duffield A, Watson F, 2012. An evaluation of an operations research project to reduce childhood stunting in a food-insecure area in Ethiopia. Public Health Nutr 15: 1746–1754.
-
49.
Black RE, Morris SS, Bryce J, 2003. Where and why are 10 million children dying every year? Lancet 361: 2226–2234.
-
50.
Checkley W, Buckley G, Gilman RH, Assis AM, Guerrant RL, Morris SS, Mølbak K, Valentiner-Branth P, Lanata CF, Black RE, 2008. Multi-country analysis of the effects of diarrhoea on childhood stunting. Int J Epidemiol 37: 816–830.
-
51.
Halken S, Host A, 1996. Prevention of allergic disease. Exposure to food allergens and dietetic intervention. Pediatr Allergy Immunol 7: 102–107.
-
52.
Bloss E, Wainaina F, Bailey RC, 2004. Prevalence and predictors of underweight, stunting, and wasting among children aged 5 and under in western Kenya. J Trop Pediatr 50: 260–270.
-
53.
Touré O, Coulibaly S, Arby A, Maiga F, Cairncross S, 2016. Piloting an intervention to improve microbiological food safety in peri-urban Mali. Int J Hyg Environ Health 216: 138–145.
-
54.
Koyanagi A, Humphrey JH, Moulton LH, Ntozini R, Mutasa K, Iliff P, Black RE, 2009. Effect of early exclusive breastfeeding on morbidity among infants born to HIV-negative mothers in Zimbabwe. Am J Clin Nutr 89: 1375–1382.
-
55.
Wenlock RW, 1980. Nutritional risk and the family environment in Zambia. Ecol Food Nutr 10: 79–86.
-
56.
Nyaruhucha CN, Mamiro PS, Kerengi AJ, Shayo NB, 2006. Nutritional status of underfive children in a pastoral community in Simanjiro District, Tanzania. Tanzan J Health Res 8: 32–36.
-
57.
Mosha TC, Philemon N, 2010. Factors influencing pregnancy outcomes in Morogoro municipality, Tanzania. Tanzan J Health Res 12: 243–251.
-
58.
Wamani H, Åstrøm AN, Peterson S, Tumwine JK, Tylleskär T, 2007. Boys are more stunted than girls in sub-Saharan Africa: a meta-analysis of 16 demographic and health surveys. BMC Pediatr 7: 17.
-
59.
Teshale F, 2014. Factors associated with stunting among children of age 24 to 59 months in Meskan district, Gurage zone, south Ethiopia: a case-control study. BMC Public Health 14: 800.
-
60.
Nestel P, Geissler C, 1986. Potential deficiencies of a pastoral diet: a case study of the Maasai. Ecol Food Nutr 19: 1–10.
-
61.
Århem K, 1989. Maasai food symbolism: the cultural connotations of milk, meat, and blood in the pastoral Maasai diet. Anthropos 84: 1–23.
| Past two years | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 1603 | 875 | 75 |
| Full Text Views | 2049 | 14 | 2 |
| PDF Downloads | 1107 | 19 | 2 |
Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene Practices Associated with Nutritional Status of Under-Five Children in Semi-Pastoral Communities Tanzania
Hoyce Amini Mshida
Hoyce Amini Mshida
School of Life Sciences and Bio-Engineering, Nelson Mandela African Institution of Science and Technology (NM-AIST), Tengeru, Arusha, Tanzania;
Search for other papers by Hoyce Amini Mshida in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by Hoyce Amini Mshida in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Neema Kassim
Neema Kassim
School of Life Sciences and Bio-Engineering, Nelson Mandela African Institution of Science and Technology (NM-AIST), Tengeru, Arusha, Tanzania;
Search for other papers by Neema Kassim in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by Neema Kassim in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Emmanuel Mpolya
Emmanuel Mpolya
School of Life Sciences and Bio-Engineering, Nelson Mandela African Institution of Science and Technology (NM-AIST), Tengeru, Arusha, Tanzania;
Search for other papers by Emmanuel Mpolya in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by Emmanuel Mpolya in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Martin Kimanya
Martin Kimanya
School of Life Sciences and Bio-Engineering, Nelson Mandela African Institution of Science and Technology (NM-AIST), Tengeru, Arusha, Tanzania;
Department of Rural Economy and Agriculture, African Union Commission, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Search for other papers by Martin Kimanya in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Department of Rural Economy and Agriculture, African Union Commission, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Search for other papers by Martin Kimanya in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Undernutrition among under-five children is a public health concern in developing countries and has been linked with poor water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) practices. This study aimed at assessing WASH practices and its association with nutritional status of under-five children in semi-pastoral communities of Arusha. The study was cross-sectional in design. Mother–child pairs from 310 households in four villages of Monduli and Longido were involved. Weight and height of children were measured using weighing scale and length/height board, respectively. Children’s age was recorded using clinic cards. Hemoglobin level of each child was tested using Hemo Cue® Hb 201 + photometer (HemoCue AB, Ängelholm, Sweden) machine. Structured questionnaire was used to gather information on WASH, child morbidity, demographic, and sociocultural characteristics. Prevalence of stunted, underweight, wasted, anemia, and diarrhea were 31.6%, 15.5%, 4.5% 61.2%, and 15.5%, respectively. Children with diarrhea 2 weeks preceding the survey (P = 0.004), children using surface water for domestic purposes (P < 0.001), and those with uneducated mothers (P = 0.001) had increased risk of being stunted and underweight. Children introduced to complementary foods before 6 months of age (P = 0.02) or belonging to polygamous families (P = 0.03) had increased risk of being stunted. Consumption of cow’s milk that is not boiled (P = 0.05) or being a boy (P = 0.03) was associated with underweight. Prevalence of undernutrition among under-five children in the population under study was alarming and it could be associated with poor WASH practices and other sociocultural factors. This study underlines the importance of incorporating WASH strategies in formulation of interventions targeting on promotion of nutrition and disease prevention in pastoral communities.
- Supplemental Materials (PDF 239 KB)
Author Notes
Financial support: We thank The United Republic of Tanzania for funding this study and the Nelson Mandela African Institution of Science and Technology for academic and financial support during the research period.
Authors’ addresses: Hoyce Amini Mshida and Neema Kassim, Department of Food Biotechnology and Nutritional Sciences (FBNS), School of Life Sciences and Bio-Engineering (LiSBE), Nelson Mandela African Institution of Science and Technology, Tengeru, Arusha, Tanzania, E-mails: mshidah@nm-aist.ac.tz and neema.kassim@nm-aist.ac.tz. Emmanuel Mpolya, Department of Global Health and Biomedical Sciences, School of Life Sciences and Bio-Engineering (LiSBE), Nelson Mandela African Institution of Science and Technology, Tengeru, Arusha, Tanzania, E-mail: emmanuel.mpolya@nm-aist.ac.tz. Martin Kimanya, Department of Rural Economy and Agriculture, African Union Commission, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, E-mail: martin.kimanya@nm-aist.ac.tz.
- INTRODUCTION
- MATERIALS AND METHODS
- RESULTS
- Sociodemographic characteristics of the study participants.
- Child-feeding practices.
- Water safety and accessibility, sanitation, and hygiene practices.
- Nutritional status, hemoglobin levels, and diarrhea among under-five children.
- Factors associated with underweight among under-five children.
- Factors associated with stunting among under-five children.
- DISCUSSION
- Supplementary Material
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1.
Cravioto J, Delicardie ER, 1979. Nutrition, mental development and learning. Human Growth. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 481–511.
-
2.
UNICEF, WHO, World Bank, 2013. Joint Child Malnutrition Estimates–Levels and Trends. Available at: http://www.who.int/nutgrowthdb/estimates201/. Accessed March 11, 2014.
-
3.
Black RE, Cousens S, Johnson HL, Lawn JE, Rudan I, Bassani DG, Jha P, Campbell H, Walker CF, Cibulskis R, 2010. Global, regional, and national causes of child mortality in 2008: a systematic analysis. Lancet 375: 1969–1987.
-
4.
Sharifzadeh G, Mehrjoofard H, Raghebi S, 2010. Prevalence of malnutrition in under 6-year olds in South Khorasan, Iran. Iran J Pediatr 20: 435.
-
5.
Waage J, Banerji R, Campbell O, Chirwa E, Collender G, Dieltiens V, Dorward A, Godfrey-Faussett P, Hanvoravongchai P, Kingdon G, 2010. The Millennium Development Goals: a cross-sectoral analysis and principles for goal setting after 2015. Lancet 376: 991–1023.
-
6.
USAID, 2015. WASH & NUTRITION: Water and Development Strategy Implementation Brief. USAID Report, 2015. Available at: http://www.usaid.gov. Accessed November 9, 2015.
-
7.
Adelo B, Temesgen S, 2015. Undernutritional status of children in Ethiopia: application of partial proportional odds model. Turkiye Klinikleri Journal of Biostatistics 7: 77–89.
-
8.
TDHS, 2015–2016. Tanzania Demographic, Health Survey and Malaria Indicator Survey (TDHS-MIS). Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, and Rockville, MD: MoHCDGEC, MoH, NBS, OCGS, and ICF.
-
9.
Chase C, Ngure F, 2016. Multisectoral Approaches to Improving Nutrition: Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene. Available at: worldbankwater@worldbank.org or www.wsp.org. Accessed December 21, 2016.
-
10.
Humphrey JH, 2009. Child undernutrition, tropical enteropathy, toilets, and handwashing. Lancet 374: 1032–1035.
-
11.
Ngure FM, Reid BM, Humphrey JH, Mbuya MN, Pelto G, Stoltzfus RJ, 2014. Water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH), environmental enteropathy, nutrition, and early child development: making the links. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1308: 118–128.
-
12.
Morris SS, Cousens SN, Lanata CF, Kirkwood BR, 1994. Diarrhoea—defining the episode. Int J Epidemiol 23: 617–623.
-
13.
Burton MJ, Rajak SN, Hu VH, Ramadhani A, Habtamu E, Massae P, Tadesse Z, Callahan K, Emerson PM, Khaw PT, 2015. Pathogenesis of progressive scarring trachoma in Ethiopia and Tanzania and its implications for disease control: two cohort studies. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 9: e0003763.
-
14.
UNICEF, 2014. Statistical Snapshot: Child Mortality. Available at: https://data.unicef.org/resources/early-childhood-development-a-statistical-snapshot-building-better-brain. Accessed September 23, 2014.
-
15.
Prüss‐Ustün A, Bartram J, Clasen T, Colford JM, Cumming O, Curtis V, Bonjour S, Dangour AD, De France J, Fewtrell L, 2014. Burden of disease from inadequate water, sanitation and hygiene in low‐and middle‐income settings: a retrospective analysis of data from 145 countries. Trop Med Int Health 19: 894–905.
-
16.
Lunn P, Northrop-Clewes C, Downes R, 1991. Intestinal permeability, mucosal injury, and growth faltering in Gambian infants. Lancet 338: 907–910.
-
17.
Schmidt CW, 2014. Beyond malnutrition: the role of sanitation in stunted growth. Environ Health Perspect 122: A298.
-
18.
Black RE, Victora CG, Walker SP, Bhutta ZA, Christian P, De Onis M, Ezzati M, Grantham-McGregor S, Katz J, Martorell R, 2013. Maternal and child undernutrition and overweight in low-income and middle-income countries. Lancet 382: 427–451.
-
19.
Curtis V, Cairncross S, 2003. Effect of washing hands with soap on diarrhoea risk in the community: a systematic review. Lancet Infect Dis 3: 275–281.
-
20.
Lomazzi M, Borisch B, Laaser U, 2014. The Millennium Development Goals: experiences, achievements and what’s next. Glob Health Action 7: 23695.
-
21.
WHO and UNICEF, 2015. Progress on Sanitation and Drinking Water–2015 Update and MDG Assessment. Available at: https://www.unicef.org/publications/index_82419.html. Accessed September 3, 2015.
-
22.
Benova L, Cumming O, Gordon BA, Magoma M, Campbell OM, 2014. Where there is no toilet: water and sanitation environments of domestic and facility births in Tanzania. PLoS One 9: e106738.
-
23.
WHO, 2012. Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality: Recommendations. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO Press. Available at: http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/publications/2011/dwq_guidelines/en/. Accessed July 17, 2014.
-
24.
Pickering AJ, Davis J, 2012. Freshwater availability and water fetching distance affect child health in sub-Saharan Africa. Environ Sci Technol 46: 2391–2397.
-
25.
Lyimo B, Buza J, Smith W, Subbiah M, Call DR, 2016. Surface waters in northern Tanzania harbor fecal coliform and antibiotic resistant Salmonella spp. capable of horizontal gene transfer. Afr J Microbiol Res 10: 348–356.
-
26.
Lemons A, 2009. Maji Salama: Implementing Ceramic Water Filtration Technology in Arusha. MPH Candidate Thesis, Emory University, Tanzania.
-
27.
Gilman RH, Skillicorn P, 1985. Boiling of drinking-water: can a fuel-scarce community afford it? Bull World Health Organ 63: 157.
-
28.
Thomas J, Holbro N, Young D, 2013. A Review of Sanitation and Hygiene in Tanzania. London, United Kingdom: Department for International Development.
-
29.
Gautam O, 2015. Food Hygiene Intervention to Improve Food Hygiene Behaviours, and Reduce Food Contamination in Nepal: An Exploratory Trial. Available at: http://researchonline.lshtm.ac.uk/2531624/. Accessed November 1, 2015.
-
30.
Gautam O, Cairncross S, Cavill S, Curtis V, 2017. Trial of a novel intervention to improve multiple food hygiene behaviors in Nepal. Am J Trop Med Hyg 96: 1415–1426.
-
31.
Sheth M, Dwivedi R, 2006. Complementary foods associated diarrhea. Indian J Pediatr 73: 61–64.
-
32.
Fawzy A, Arpadi S, Kankasa C, Sinkala M, Mwiya M, Thea DM, Aldrovandi GM, Kuhn L, 2011. Early weaning increases diarrhea morbidity and mortality among uninfected children born to HIV-infected mothers in Zambia. J Infect Dis 203: 1222–1230.
-
33.
Aheto JMK, Keegan TJ, Taylor BM, Diggle PJ, 2015. Childhood malnutrition and its determinants among under‐five children in Ghana. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol 29: 552–561.
-
34.
Bowen PA, Hillyard J, Hartwig K, Langford S, Harvey M, James S, 2010. The Whole Village Project Village Reports for Elerai, Eworendeke, Kimoukuwa, Tingatinga, Kiserian, Sinya, and Kitendeni in Longido District. Available at: wholevillage.umn.edu/documents/Longido.pdf. Accessed August 5, 2010.
-
35.
Bowen PA, Landry K, Espejo N, Susan James S, 2010. The Whole Village Project Village Reports for Engaruka, Migombani, Naitolia, and Selela in Monduli District. Available at: wholevillage.umn.edu/documents/Longido.pdf. Accessed July 23, 2010.
-
36.
TDHS, 2010. Tanzania Demographic and Health Survey, 2010. Available at: www.nbs.go.tz. Accessed March 4, 2015.
-
37.
De Onis M, 2006. WHO child growth standards based on length/height, weight and age. Acta Paediatr 95: 76–85.
-
38.
De Benoist B, McLean E, Egli I, Cogswell M, 2008. WHO Global Database on Anaemia. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization, 1993–2005.
-
39.
De Onis M, Brown D, Blossner M, Borghi E, 2012. Levels and Trends in Child Malnutrition. Washington, DC: UNICEF-WHO-The World Bank Joint Child Malnutrition Estimates.
-
40.
UNICEF, 2015. Progress on Sanitation and Drinking Water–2015 Update and MDG Assessment. Available at: http://www.unicef.org. Accessed October 11, 2015.
-
41.
Lyimo C, Shayo R, Lyimo TJ, 2007. Community awareness on microbial water pollution and its effects on health development in urban Tanzania: a case study of Tabata and Kiwalani wards in Ilala District in Dar es Salaam region. Tanzania Journal of Development Studies 7: 103–114.
-
42.
Devoto F, Duflo E, Dupas P, Parienté W, Pons V, 2012. Happiness on tap: piped water adoption in urban Morocco. Am Econ J Econ Policy 4: 68–99.
-
43.
Chirande L, Charwe D, Mbwana H, Victor R, Kimboka S, Issaka AI, Baines SK, Dibley MJ, Agho KE, 2015. Determinants of stunting and severe stunting among under-fives in Tanzania: evidence from the 2010 cross-sectional household survey. BMC Pediatr 15: 165.
-
44.
Hong R, Banta JE, Betancourt JA, 2006. Relationship between household wealth inequality and chronic childhood under-nutrition in Bangladesh. Int J Equity Health 5: 1.
-
45.
Dangour AD, Watson L, Cumming O, Boisson S, Che Y, Velleman Y, Cavill S, Allen E, Uauy R, 2013. Interventions to improve water quality and supply, sanitation and hygiene practices, and their effects on the nutritional status of children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev CD009382.
-
46.
UNICEF, 2009. Diarrhoea: Why Children Are Still Dying and What Can Be Done. Available at: http://www. unicef. org/media/files/Final_Diarrhoea_Report_October_2009_final. pdf.
-
47.
Safari JG, Masanyiwa ZS, Lwelamira JE, 2015. Prevalence and factors associated with child malnutrition in Nzega District, rural Tanzania. Current Research Journal of Social Sciences 7: 94–100.
-
48.
Fenn B, Bulti AT, Nduna T, Duffield A, Watson F, 2012. An evaluation of an operations research project to reduce childhood stunting in a food-insecure area in Ethiopia. Public Health Nutr 15: 1746–1754.
-
49.
Black RE, Morris SS, Bryce J, 2003. Where and why are 10 million children dying every year? Lancet 361: 2226–2234.
-
50.
Checkley W, Buckley G, Gilman RH, Assis AM, Guerrant RL, Morris SS, Mølbak K, Valentiner-Branth P, Lanata CF, Black RE, 2008. Multi-country analysis of the effects of diarrhoea on childhood stunting. Int J Epidemiol 37: 816–830.
-
51.
Halken S, Host A, 1996. Prevention of allergic disease. Exposure to food allergens and dietetic intervention. Pediatr Allergy Immunol 7: 102–107.
-
52.
Bloss E, Wainaina F, Bailey RC, 2004. Prevalence and predictors of underweight, stunting, and wasting among children aged 5 and under in western Kenya. J Trop Pediatr 50: 260–270.
-
53.
Touré O, Coulibaly S, Arby A, Maiga F, Cairncross S, 2016. Piloting an intervention to improve microbiological food safety in peri-urban Mali. Int J Hyg Environ Health 216: 138–145.
-
54.
Koyanagi A, Humphrey JH, Moulton LH, Ntozini R, Mutasa K, Iliff P, Black RE, 2009. Effect of early exclusive breastfeeding on morbidity among infants born to HIV-negative mothers in Zimbabwe. Am J Clin Nutr 89: 1375–1382.
-
55.
Wenlock RW, 1980. Nutritional risk and the family environment in Zambia. Ecol Food Nutr 10: 79–86.
-
56.
Nyaruhucha CN, Mamiro PS, Kerengi AJ, Shayo NB, 2006. Nutritional status of underfive children in a pastoral community in Simanjiro District, Tanzania. Tanzan J Health Res 8: 32–36.
-
57.
Mosha TC, Philemon N, 2010. Factors influencing pregnancy outcomes in Morogoro municipality, Tanzania. Tanzan J Health Res 12: 243–251.
-
58.
Wamani H, Åstrøm AN, Peterson S, Tumwine JK, Tylleskär T, 2007. Boys are more stunted than girls in sub-Saharan Africa: a meta-analysis of 16 demographic and health surveys. BMC Pediatr 7: 17.
-
59.
Teshale F, 2014. Factors associated with stunting among children of age 24 to 59 months in Meskan district, Gurage zone, south Ethiopia: a case-control study. BMC Public Health 14: 800.
-
60.
Nestel P, Geissler C, 1986. Potential deficiencies of a pastoral diet: a case study of the Maasai. Ecol Food Nutr 19: 1–10.
-
61.
Århem K, 1989. Maasai food symbolism: the cultural connotations of milk, meat, and blood in the pastoral Maasai diet. Anthropos 84: 1–23.
| Past two years | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 1603 | 875 | 75 |
| Full Text Views | 2049 | 14 | 2 |
| PDF Downloads | 1107 | 19 | 2 |