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Demographic, Socioeconomic, and Geographic Factors Leading to Severe Malaria and Delayed Care Seeking in Ugandan Children: A Case–Control Study
Arthur Mpimbaza
Arthur Mpimbaza
Child Health & Development Centre, Makerere University-College of Health Sciences, Kampala, Uganda;
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Grace Ndeezi
Grace Ndeezi
Department of Pediatrics & Child Health, Makerere University-College of Health Sciences, Kampala, Uganda;
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Anne Katahoire
Anne Katahoire
Child Health & Development Centre, Makerere University-College of Health Sciences, Kampala, Uganda;
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Philip J. Rosenthal
Philip J. Rosenthal
Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, California;
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Charles Karamagi
Charles Karamagi
Department of Pediatrics & Child Health, Makerere University-College of Health Sciences, Kampala, Uganda;
Clinical Epidemiology Unit, Department of Medicine, Makerere University-College of Health Sciences, Kampala, Uganda
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Clinical Epidemiology Unit, Department of Medicine, Makerere University-College of Health Sciences, Kampala, Uganda
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We studied associations between delayed care seeking, demographic, socioeconomic, and geographic factors and likelihood of severe malaria in Ugandan children. The study was based at Jinja Hospital, Uganda. We enrolled 325 severe malaria cases and 325 uncomplicated malaria controls matched by age and residence. Patient details, an itinerary of events in response to illness, household information, and location of participants’ residences were captured. Conditional logistic regression was used to determine risk factors for severe malaria and delayed care seeking. Delayed care seeking (≥ 24 hours after fever onset; odds ratio [OR] 5.50; 95% confidence interval [CI] 2.70, 11.1), seeking care at a drug shop as the initial response to illness (OR 3.62; 95% CI 1.86, 7.03), and increasing distance from place of residence to the nearest health center (OR 1.45; 95% CI 1.17, 1.79) were independent risk factors for severe malaria. On subgroup analysis, delayed care seeking was a significant risk factor in children with severe malaria attributable to severe anemia (OR 15.6; 95% CI 3.02, 80.6), but not unconsciousness (OR 1.13; 95% CI 0.30, 4.28). Seeking care at a drug shop (OR 2.84; 95% CI 1.12, 7.21) and increasing distance to the nearest health center (OR 1.18; 95% CI 1.01, 1.37) were independent risk factors for delayed care seeking. Delayed care seeking and seeking care at a drug shop were risk factors for severe malaria. Seeking care at a drug shop was also a predictor of delayed care seeking. The role of drug shops in contributing to delayed care and risk of severe malaria requires further study.
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Author Notes
Financial support: This research was supported by two training awards from the NIH Fogarty International Center, the University of California Global Health Institute GloCal Health Fellowship (TW009343) and the Training in Malaria Research in Uganda program (TW007375). The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
Authors’ addresses: Arthur Mpimbaza, Grace Ndeezi, Anne Katahoire, and Charles Karamagi, College of Health Sciences, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda, E-mails: arthurwakg@yahoo.com, gndeezi@gmail.com, annekatahoire@yahoo.co.uk, and ckaramagi2000@yahoo.com. Philip J. Rosenthal, University of California, San Francisco, CA, Email: philip.rosenthal@ucsf.edu.
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1.
Noor AM, Kinyoki DK, Mundia CW, Kabaria CW, Mutua JW, Alegana VA, Fall IS, Snow RW, 2014. The changing risk of Plasmodium falciparum malaria infection in Africa: 2000–10: a spatial and temporal analysis of transmission intensity. Lancet 383: 1739–1747.
-
2.
Bhatt S et al. 2015. The effect of malaria control on Plasmodium falciparum in Africa between 2000 and 2015. Nature 526: 207–211.
-
3.
White NJ, Pukrittayakamee S, Hien TT, Faiz MA, Mokuolu OA, Dondorp AM, 2014. Malaria. Lancet 383: 723–735.
-
4.
World Health Organization, 2015. Malaria Treatment Guidelines. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.
-
5.
Chotivanich K, Udomsangpetch R, Simpson JA, Newton P, Pukrittayakamee S, Looareesuwan S, White NJ, 2000. Parasite multiplication potential and the severity of falciparum malaria. J Infect Dis 181: 1206–1209.
-
6.
Zoungrana A, Chou YJ, Pu C, 2014. Socioeconomic and environment determinants as predictors of severe malaria in children under 5 years of age admitted in two hospitals in Koudougou district, Burkina Faso: a cross sectional study. Acta Trop 139: 109–114.
-
7.
Ilunga-Ilunga F, Leveque A, Ngongo LO, Laokri S, Dramaix M, 2015. Treatment-seeking paths in the management of severe malaria in children under 15 years of age treated in reference hospitals of Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo. Trop Med Health 43: 11–19.
-
8.
Byakika-Kibwika P, Ndeezi G, Kamya MR, 2009. Health care related factors associated with severe malaria in children in Kampala, Uganda. Afr Health Sci 9: 206–210.
-
9.
Nacher M, Singhasivanon P, Vannaphan S, Treeprasertsuk S, Phanumaphorn M, Traore B, Looareesuwan S, Gay F, 2001. Socio-economic and environmental protective/risk factors for severe malaria in Thailand. Acta Trop 78: 139–146.
-
10.
Greenwood BM, Bradley AK, Greenwood AM, Byass P, Jammeh K, Marsh K, Tulloch S, Oldfield FS, Hayes R, 1987. Mortality and morbidity from malaria among children in a rural area of The Gambia, West Africa. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 81: 478–486.
-
11.
Genton B, al-Yaman F, Alpers MP, Mokela D, 1997. Indicators of fatal outcome in paediatric cerebral malaria: a study of 134 comatose Papua New Guinean children. Int J Epidemiol 26: 670–676.
-
12.
Luckner D, Lell B, Greve B, Lehman LG, Schmidt-Ott RJ, Matousek P, Herbich K, Schmid D, Mba R, Kremsner PG, 1998. No influence of socioeconomic factors on severe malarial anaemia, hyperparasitaemia or reinfection. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 92: 478–481.
-
13.
Al-Taiar A, Jaffar S, Assabri A, Al-Habori M, Azazy A, Al-Gabri A, Al-Ganadi M, Attal B, Whitty CJ, 2008. Who develops severe malaria? Impact of access to healthcare, socio-economic and environmental factors on children in Yemen: a case-control study. Trop Med Int Health 13: 762–770.
-
14.
Rees CP, Hawkesworth S, Moore SE, Dondeh BL, Unger SA, 2016. Factors affecting access to healthcare: an observational study of children under 5 years of age presenting to a Rural Gambian Primary Healthcare Centre. PLoS One 11: e0157790.
-
15.
Romay-Barja M, Cano J, Ncogo P, Nseng G, Santana-Morales MA, Valladares B, Riloha M, Benito A, 2016. Determinants of delay in malaria care-seeking behaviour for children 15 years and under in Bata district, Equatorial Guinea. Malar J 15: 187.
-
16.
Chuma J, Okungu V, Molyneux C, 2010. Barriers to prompt and effective malaria treatment among the poorest population in Kenya. Malar J 9: 144.
-
17.
Chukwuocha UM, Okpanma AC, Nwakwuo GC, Dozie IN, 2014. Determinants of delay in seeking malaria treatment for children under-five years in parts of south eastern Nigeria. J Community Health 39: 1171–1178.
-
18.
Getahun A, Deribe K, Deribew A, 2010. Determinants of delay in malaria treatment-seeking behaviour for under-five children in south-west Ethiopia: a case control study. Malar J 9: 320.
-
19.
Ahorlu CK, Koram KA, Ahorlu C, de Savigny D, Weiss MG, 2006. Socio-cultural determinants of treatment delay for childhood malaria in southern Ghana. Trop Med Int Health 11: 1022–1031.
-
20.
Ansah EK, Gyapong M, Narh-Bana S, Bart-Plange C, Whitty CJ, 2016. Factors influencing choice of care-seeking for acute fever comparing private chemical shops with health centres and hospitals in Ghana: a study using case-control methodology. Malar J 15: 290.
-
21.
Carme B, Plassart H, Senga P, Nzingoula S, 1994. Cerebral malaria in African children: socioeconomic risk factors in Brazzaville, Congo. Am J Trop Med Hyg 50: 131–136.
-
22.
Mulumba MP, Wery M, Ngimbi NN, Paluku K, Van der Stuyft P, De Muynck A, 1990. Childhood malaria in Kinshasa (Zaire). Influence of seasons, age, environment, and family social conditions. Med Trop (Mars) 50: 53–64.
-
23.
Safeukui-Noubissi I et al. 2004. Risk factors for severe malaria in Bamako, Mali: a matched case-control study. Microbes Infect 6: 572–578.
-
24.
Koram KA, Bennett S, Adiamah JH, Greenwood BM, 1995. Socio-economic determinants are not major risk factors for severe malaria in Gambian children. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 89: 151–154.
-
25.
Ossou-Nguiet PM, Okoko AR, Ekouya Bowassa G, Oko AP, Mabiala-Babela JR, Ndjobo Mamadoud IC, Moyen G, 2013. Determinants of cerebral malaria in Congolese children. Rev Neurol (Paris) 169: 510–514.
-
26.
Bennett S, Koram KA, Greenwood BM, 1999. Risk factors for severe malaria: importance of careful study design. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 93: 679.
-
27.
Carme B, Rogier C, Trape JF, 2000. Risk factors for severe malaria: importance of careful study design: a reply. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 94: 89.
-
28.
Nacher M, Singhasivanon P, Gay F, Silachamroon U, Looareesuwan S, 2001. Case-control studies on host factors in severe malaria. Trends Parasitol 17: 253–254.
-
29.
Driss A, Hibbert JM, Wilson NO, Iqbal SA, Adamkiewicz TV, Stiles JK, 2011. Genetic polymorphisms linked to susceptibility to malaria. Malar J 10: 271.
-
30.
Cunnington AJ, Walther M, Riley EM, 2013. Piecing together the puzzle of severe malaria. Sci Transl Med 5: 211ps18.
-
31.
Uganda Bureau of Statistics (UBOS) and ICF International, 2015. Uganda Malaria Indicator Survey 2014–15. Kampala, Uganda, and Rockville, MD: UBOS and ICF International.
-
32.
Uganda Bureau of Statistics (UBOS), 2014. Uganda National Household Survey 2012/2013. Kampala, Uganda: UBOS.
-
33.
Marsh K et al. 1995. Indicators of life-threatening malaria in African children. N Engl J Med 332: 1399–1404.
-
34.
WHO, 2014. Severe malaria. Trop Med Int Health 19 (Suppl 1): 7–131.
-
35.
Talisuna AO, Noor AM, Mundia CW, Otieno V, Mitto B, Amratia P, Robert WS, 2013. An Epidemiological Profile of Malaria and its Control in Uganda. Analysis and report funded by Roll Back Malaria and Department for International Development. UK.
-
36.
Li H, Yuan Z, Su P, Wang T, Yu Y, Sun X, Xue F, 2016. A simulation study on matched case-control designs in the perspective of causal diagrams. BMC Med Res Methodol 16: 102.
-
37.
Vyas S, Kumaranayake L, 2006. Constructing socio-economic status indices: how to use principal components analysis. Health Policy Plan 21: 459–468.
-
38.
Bursac Z, Gauss CH, Williams DK, Hosmer DW, 2008. Purposeful selection of variables in logistic regression. Source Code Biol Med 3: 17.
-
39.
World Health Organization, 2015. Country Profiles. Available at: http://www.who.int/malaria/publications/country-profile_uga.en.pdf. Accessed June 21, 2017.
-
40.
van der Laan MJ, 2008. Estimation based on case-control designs with known prevalence probability. Int J Biostat 4: 17.
-
41.
Jiang Y, Scott AJ, Wild CJ, 2006. Secondary analysis of case-control data. Stat Med 25: 1323–1339.
-
42.
Sommerfelt H, Steinsland H, van der Merwe L, Blackwelder WC, Nasrin D, Farag TH, Kotloff KL, Levine MM, Gjessing HK, 2012. Case/control studies with follow-up: Constructing the source population to estimate effects of risk factors on development, disease, and survival. Clin Infect Dis 55 (Suppl 4): S262–S270.
-
43.
Feikin DR, Nguyen LM, Adazu K, Ombok M, Audi A, Slutsker L, Lindblade KA, 2009. The impact of distance of residence from a peripheral health facility on pediatric health utilisation in rural western Kenya. Trop Med Int Health 14: 54–61.
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