WHO, 2015. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization. Available at: http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs375/en/. Accessed February 1, 2015.
Sundar S, More DK, Singh MK, Singh VP, Sharma S, Makharia A, Kumar PCK, Murray HW, 2000. Failure of pentavalent antimony in visceral leishmaniasis in India: report from the center of the Indian epidemic. Clin Infect Dis 31: 1104–1107.
Bermudez H, Rojas E, Garcia L, Desjeux P, Dujardin JC, Boelaert M, Chappuis F, 2006. Generic sodium stibogluconate is as safe and effective as branded meglumine antimoniate, for the treatment of tegumentary leishmaniasis in Isiboro secure park, Bolivia. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 100: 591–600.
Oliveira-Neto MP, Schubach A, Mattos M, Goncalves-Costa SC, Pirmez C, 1997. A low-dose antimony treatment in 159 patients with American cutaneous leishmaniasis: extensive follow-up studies (up to 10 years). Am J Trop Med Hyg 57: 651–655.
Llanos-Cuentas A, Tulliano G, Araujo-Castillo R, Miranda-Verastegui C, Santamaria-Castrellon G, Ramirez L, Lazo M, De Doncker S, Boelaert M, Robays J, Dujardin J, Arevalo J, Chappuis F, 2008. Clinical and parasite species risk factors for pentavalent antimonial treatment failure in cutaneous leishmaniasis in Peru. Clin Infect Dis 46: 223–231.
Andersen EM, Cruz-Saldarriaga M, Llanos-Cuentas A, Luz-Cjuno M, Echevarria J, Miranda-Verastegui C, Colina O, Berman JD, 2005. Comparison of meglumine antimoniate and pentamidine for Peruvian cutaneous leishmaniasis. Am J Trop Med Hyg 72: 133–137.
Palacios R, Osorio LE, Grajalew LF, Ochoa MT, 2001. Treatment failure in children in a randomized clinical trial with 10 and 20 days of meglumine antimonate for cutaneous leishmaniasis due to Leishmania Viannia species. Am J Trop Med Hyg 64: 187–193.
Brown M, Noursadeghi M, Boyle J, Davidson RN, 2005. Successful liposomal amphotericin B treatment of Leishmania braziliensis cutaneous leishmaniasis. Br J Dermatol 153: 203–205.
Yardley V, Croft SL, 1997. Activity of liposomal amphotericin B against experimental cutaneous leishmaniasis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 41: 752–756.
Wortmann G, Zapor M, Ressner R, Fraser S, Hartzell J, Pierson J, Weintrob A, Magill A, 2010. Lipsosomal amphotericin B for treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis. Am J Trop Med Hyg 83: 1028–1033.
Neves LO, Talhari AC, Gadelha EP, Junior S, Guerra JA, Ferreira LC, Talhari S, 2011. A randomized clinical trial comparing meglumine antimoniate, pentamidine and amphotericin B for the treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis by Leishmania guyanensis. An Bras Dermatol 86: 1092–1101.
Prata A, Silva-Vergara ML, Costa L, Rocha A, Krolewiecki A, Silva JC, de Paula EV, Pimenta Junior FG, Giraldo LE, 2003. Efficacy of azithromycin in the treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop 36: 65–69.
Krolewiecki AJ, Romero HD, Cajal SP, Abraham D, Mimori T, Matsumoto T, Juarez M, Taranto NJ, 2007. A randomized clinical trial comparing oral azithromycin and meglumine antimoniate for the treatment of American cutaneous leishmaniasis caused by Leishmania (Viannia) braziliensis. Am J Trop Med Hyg 77: 640–646.
Alrajhi AA, Ibrahim EA, De Vol EB, Khairat M, Faris RM, Maguire JH, 2002. Fluconazole for the treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis caused by Leishmania major. N Engl J Med 346: 891–895.
Emad M, Hayati F, Fallahzadeh MK, Namazi MR, 2011. Superior efficacy of oral fluconazole 400 mg daily versus oral fluconazole 200 mg daily in the treatment of cutaneous Leishmania major infection: a randomized clinical trial. J Am Acad Dermatol 64: 606–608.
Sousa AQ, Frutuoso MS, Moraes EA, Pearson RD, Pompeu MM, 2011. High-dose oral fluconazole therapy effective for cutaneous leishmaniasis due to Leishmania (Vianna) braziliensis. Clin Infect Dis 53: 693–695.
Soto J, Arana BA, Toledo J, Rizzo N, Vega JC, Diaz A, Luz M, Gutierrez P, Arboleda M, Berman JD, Junge K, Engel J, Sindermann H, 2004. Miltefosine for new world cutaneous leishmaniasis. Clin Infect Dis 38: 1266–1272.
Soto J, Toledo J, Gutierrez P, Nicholls RS, Padilla J, Engel J, Fischer C, Voss A, Berman J, 2001. Treatment of american cutaneous leishmaniasis with miltefosine, an oral agent. Clin Infect Dis 33: E57–E61.
Hepburn NC, Tidman MJ, Hunter JA, 1994. Aminosidine (paromomycin) versus sodium stibogluconate for the treatment of American cutaneous leishmaniasis. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 88: 700–703.
Soto J, Grogl M, Berman J, Olliaro P, 1994. Limited efficacy of injectable aminosidine as single-agent therapy for Colombian cutaneous leishmaniasis. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 88: 695–698.
Ben Salah A, Ben Messaoud N, Guedri E, Zaatour A, Ben Alaya N, Bettaieb J, Gharbi A, Belhadj Hamida N, Boukthir A, Chlif S, Abdelhamid K, El Ahmadi Z, Louzir H, Mokni M, Morizot G, Buffet P, Smith PL, Kopydlowski KM, Kreishman-Deitrick M, Smith KS, Nielsen CJ, Ullman DR, Norwood JA, Thorne GD, McCarthy WF, Adams RC, Rice RM, Tang D, Berman J, Ransom J, Magill AJ, Grogl M, 2013. Topical paromomycin with or without gentamicin for cutaneous leishmaniasis. N Engl J Med 368: 524–532.
Ben Salah A, Buffet PA, Morizot G, Ben Massoud N, Zaatour A, Ben Alaya N, Haj Hamida NB, El Ahmadi Z, Downs MT, Smith PL, Dellagi K, Grogl M, 2009. WR279,396, a third generation aminoglycoside ointment for the treatment of Leishmania major cutaneous leishmaniasis: a phase 2, randomized, double blind, placebo controlled study. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 3: e432.
El-On J, Jacobs GP, Witztum E, Greenblatt CL, 1984. Development of topical treatment for cutaneous leishmaniasis caused by Leishmania major in experimental animals. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 26: 745–751.
Grogl M, Schuster BG, Ellis WY, Berman JD, 1999. Successful topical treatment of murine cutaneous leishmaniasis with a combination of paromomycin (aminosidine) and gentamicin. J Parasitol 85: 354–359.
Armijos RX, Weigel MM, Calvopina M, Mancheno M, Rodriguez R, 2004. Comparison of the effectiveness of two topical paromomycin treatments versus meglumine antimoniate for new world cutaneous leishmaniasis. Acta Trop 91: 153–160.
Soto J, Fuya P, Herrera R, Berman J, 1998. Topical paromomycin/methylbenzethonium chloride plus parenteral meglumine antimonate as treatment for American cutaneous leishmaniasis: controlled study. Clin Infect Dis 26: 56–58.
Dedet JP, Pradinaud R, Gay F, 1989. Epidemiological aspects of human cutaneous leishmaniasis in French Guiana. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 83: 616–620.
Gangneux JP, Sauzet S, Donnard S, Meyer N, Cornillet A, Pratlong F, Guiguen C, 2007. Recurrent American cutaneous leishmaniasis. Emerg Infect Dis 13: 1436–1438.
Nacher M, Carme B, Sainte Marie D, Couppie P, Clyti E, Guibert P, Pradinaud R, 2001. Influence of clinical presentation on the efficacy of a short course of pentamidine in the treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis in French Guiana. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 95: 331–336.
Simon S, Veron V, Carme B, 2010. Leishmania spp. identification by polymerase chain reaction–restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis and its applications in French Guiana. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 66: 175–180.
Ginouves M, Carme B, Couppie P, Prevot G, 2014. Comparison of tetrazolium salt assays for evaluation of drug activity against Leishmania spp. J Clin Microbiol 52: 2131–2138.
Trager W, 1969. Pteridine requirement of the hemoflagellate Leishmania tarentolae. J Protozool 16: 372–375.
Jain M, Dole VS, Myler PJ, Stuart KD, Madhubala R, 2007. Role of biopterin transporter (BT1) gene on growth and infectivity of Leishmania. AJBB 3: 199–206.
Pal JK, Joshi-Purandare M, 2001. Dose-dependent differential effect of hemin on protein synthesis and cell proliferation in Leishmania donovani promastigotes cultured in vitro. J Biosci 26: 225–231.
Moreira ES, Soares RM, Petrillo-Peixoto M de L, 1995. Glucantime susceptibility of Leishmania promastigotes under variable growth conditions. Parasitol Res 81: 291–295.
Nacher M, Carme B, Sainte Marie D, Couppie P, Clyti E, Guibert P, Pradinaud R, 2001. Seasonal fluctuations of incubation, healing delays, and clinical presentation of cutaneous leishmaniasis in French Guiana. J Parasitol 87: 1495–1498.
Vermeersch M, da Luz RI, Tote K, Timmermans JP, Cos P, Maes L, 2009. In vitro susceptibilities of Leishmania donovani promastigote and amastigote stages to antileishmanial reference drugs: practical relevance of stage-specific differences. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 53: 3855–3859.
Croft SL, Sundar S, Fairlamb AH, 2006. Drug resistance in leishmaniasis. Clin Microbiol Rev 19: 111–126.
Neal RA, 1989. Experimental chemotherapy. Killick-Kendrick R, Peters N, eds. The Leishmaniases. London, UK: Academic Press, 793–845.
Berman JD, Wyler DJ, 1980. An in vitro model for investigation of chemotherapeutic agents in leishmaniasis. J Infect Dis 142: 83–86.
Sereno D, Lemesre JL, 1997. Axenically cultured amastigote forms as an in vitro model for investigation of antileishmanial agents. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 41: 972–976.
Kumar D, Kulshrestha A, Singh R, Salotra P, 2009. In vitro susceptibility of field isolates of Leishmania donovani to miltefosine and amphotericin B: correlation with sodium antimony gluconate susceptibility and implications for treatment in areas of endemicity. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 53: 835–838.
Lira R, Sundar S, Makharia A, Kenney R, Gam A, Saraiva E, Sacks D, 1999. Evidence that the high incidence of treatment failures in Indian kala-azar is due to the emergence of antimony-resistant strains of Leishmania donovani. J Infect Dis 180: 564–567.
Ibrahim ME, Hag-Ali M, el-Hassan AM, Theander TG, Kharazmi A, 1994. Leishmania resistant to sodium stibogluconate: drug-associated macrophage-dependent killing. Parasitol Res 80: 569–574.
Grogl M, Thomason TN, Franke ED, 1992. Drug resistance in leishmaniasis: its implication in systemic chemotherapy of cutaneous and mucocutaneous disease. Am J Trop Med Hyg 47: 117–126.
Azeredo-Coutinho RB, Mendonca SC, Callahan H, Portal AC, Max G, 2007. Sensitivity of Leishmania braziliensis promastigotes to meglumine antimoniate (glucantime) is higher than that of other Leishmania species and correlates with response to therapy in American tegumentary leishmaniasis. J Parasitol 93: 688–693.
Berman JD, Edwards N, King M, Grogl M, 1989. Biochemistry of pentostam resistant Leishmania. Am J Trop Med Hyg 40: 159–164.
Gupta N, Goyal N, Rastogi AK, 2001. In vitro cultivation and characterization of axenic amastigotes of Leishmania. Trends Parasitol 17: 150–153.
Seifert K, Escobar P, Croft SL, 2010. In vitro activity of anti-leishmanial drugs against Leishmania donovani is host cell dependent. J Antimicrob Chemother 65: 508–511.
Zauli-Nascimento RC, Miguel DC, Yokoyama-Yasunaka JK, Pereira LI, Pelli de Oliveira MA, Ribeiro-Dias F, Dorta ML, Uliana SR, 2010. In vitro sensitivity of Leishmania (Viannia) braziliensis and Leishmania (Leishmania) amazonensis Brazilian isolates to meglumine antimoniate and amphotericin B. Trop Med Int Health 15: 68–76.
Grogl M, Oduola AM, Cordero LD, Kyle DE, 1989. Leishmania spp.: development of pentostam-resistant clones in vitro by discontinuous drug exposure. Exp Parasitol 69: 78–90.
Croft SL, 2001. Monitoring drug resistance in leishmaniasis. Trop Med Int Health 6: 899–905.
Yardley V, Ortuno N, Llanos-Cuentas A, Chappuis F, Doncker SD, Ramirez L, Croft S, Arevalo J, Adaui V, Bermudez H, Decuypere S, Dujardin JC, 2006. American tegumentary leishmaniasis: is antimonial treatment outcome related to parasite drug susceptibility? J Infect Dis 194: 1168–1175.
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Anti-leishmaniasis drug resistance is a common problem worldwide. The aim of this study was to inventory the general in vitro level of sensitivity of Leishmania isolates circulating in French Guiana and to highlight potential in vitro pentamidine-resistant isolates. This sensitivity study was conducted on 36 patient-promastigote isolates for seven drugs (amphotericin B, azithromycin, fluconazole, meglumine antimoniate, miltefosine, paromomycin, and pentamidine) using the Cell Counting Kit-8 viability test. The IC50 values obtained were heterogeneous. One isolate exhibited high IC50 values for almost all drugs tested. Pentamidine, which is the first-line treatment in French Guiana, showed efficacy at very low doses (mean of 0.0038 μg/mL). The concordance of the in vitro pentamidine results with the patients' clinical outcomes was 94% (K = 0.82).
Financial support: This work was supported by the University of French Guiana and the Ministère Français de l'Enseignement Supérieur et de la Recherche Scientifique, the Conseil Régional de la Guyane and the European Union (FEDER-Presage N° 31454), and the “Investissement d'Avenir” grant managed by Agence Nationale de la Recherche (CEBA, ref. ANR-10-LABX-25-01).
Conflicts of interest: Conflicts that the editors consider relevant to the content of the manuscript have been disclosed.
Authors' addresses: Marine Ginouvès and Stéphane Simon, DFR Santé, Ecosystemes Amazoniens et Pathologie Tropicale, Labex CEBA, University of French Guiana, Cayenne, French Guiana, and Laboratoire Associé, Centre National de Référence Leishmania, Laboratory of Parasitology and Mycology, Centre Hospitalier Andrée Rosemon, Cayenne, French Guiana, E-mails: marine.ginouves@univ-guyane.fr and stephane.simon@guyane.univ-ag.fr. Mathieu Nacher, DFR Santé, Ecosystemes Amazoniens et Pathologie Tropicale, Labex CEBA, University of French Guiana, Cayenne, French Guiana, and Centre d'Investigation Clinique Epidémiologie Clinique Antilles Guyane CIC EC 1424, Cayenne General Hospital, Cayenne, French Guiana, E-mail: mathieu.nacher@ch-cayenne.fr. Magalie Demar, DFR Santé, Ecosystemes Amazoniens et Pathologie Tropicale, Labex CEBA, University of French Guiana, Cayenne, French Guiana, Laboratoire Associé, Centre National de Référence Leishmania, Laboratory of Parasitology and Mycology, Centre Hospitalier Andrée Rosemon, Cayenne, French Guiana, E-mail: magalie.demar@ch-cayenne.fr. Bernard Carme, DFR Santé, Ecosystemes Amazoniens et Pathologie Tropicale, Labex CEBA, University of French Guiana, Cayenne, French Guiana, and Centre Hospitalier Andrée Rosemon, Cayenne, French Guiana, E-mail: carme.bernard@wanadoo.fr. Pierre Couppié, DFR Santé, Ecosystemes Amazoniens et Pathologie Tropicale, Labex CEBA, University of French Guiana, Cayenne, French Guiana, and Guianan Institute of Tropical Dermatology, Centre Hospitalier Andrée Rosemon, Cayenne, French Guiana, E-mail: pierre.couppie@ch-cayenne.fr. Ghislaine Prévot, DFR Santé, Ecosystemes Amazoniens et Pathologie Tropicale, Labex CEBA, University of French Guiana, Cayenne, French Guiana, E-mail: fac.prevot@gmail.com.
WHO, 2015. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization. Available at: http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs375/en/. Accessed February 1, 2015.
Sundar S, More DK, Singh MK, Singh VP, Sharma S, Makharia A, Kumar PCK, Murray HW, 2000. Failure of pentavalent antimony in visceral leishmaniasis in India: report from the center of the Indian epidemic. Clin Infect Dis 31: 1104–1107.
Bermudez H, Rojas E, Garcia L, Desjeux P, Dujardin JC, Boelaert M, Chappuis F, 2006. Generic sodium stibogluconate is as safe and effective as branded meglumine antimoniate, for the treatment of tegumentary leishmaniasis in Isiboro secure park, Bolivia. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 100: 591–600.
Oliveira-Neto MP, Schubach A, Mattos M, Goncalves-Costa SC, Pirmez C, 1997. A low-dose antimony treatment in 159 patients with American cutaneous leishmaniasis: extensive follow-up studies (up to 10 years). Am J Trop Med Hyg 57: 651–655.
Llanos-Cuentas A, Tulliano G, Araujo-Castillo R, Miranda-Verastegui C, Santamaria-Castrellon G, Ramirez L, Lazo M, De Doncker S, Boelaert M, Robays J, Dujardin J, Arevalo J, Chappuis F, 2008. Clinical and parasite species risk factors for pentavalent antimonial treatment failure in cutaneous leishmaniasis in Peru. Clin Infect Dis 46: 223–231.
Andersen EM, Cruz-Saldarriaga M, Llanos-Cuentas A, Luz-Cjuno M, Echevarria J, Miranda-Verastegui C, Colina O, Berman JD, 2005. Comparison of meglumine antimoniate and pentamidine for Peruvian cutaneous leishmaniasis. Am J Trop Med Hyg 72: 133–137.
Palacios R, Osorio LE, Grajalew LF, Ochoa MT, 2001. Treatment failure in children in a randomized clinical trial with 10 and 20 days of meglumine antimonate for cutaneous leishmaniasis due to Leishmania Viannia species. Am J Trop Med Hyg 64: 187–193.
Brown M, Noursadeghi M, Boyle J, Davidson RN, 2005. Successful liposomal amphotericin B treatment of Leishmania braziliensis cutaneous leishmaniasis. Br J Dermatol 153: 203–205.
Yardley V, Croft SL, 1997. Activity of liposomal amphotericin B against experimental cutaneous leishmaniasis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 41: 752–756.
Wortmann G, Zapor M, Ressner R, Fraser S, Hartzell J, Pierson J, Weintrob A, Magill A, 2010. Lipsosomal amphotericin B for treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis. Am J Trop Med Hyg 83: 1028–1033.
Neves LO, Talhari AC, Gadelha EP, Junior S, Guerra JA, Ferreira LC, Talhari S, 2011. A randomized clinical trial comparing meglumine antimoniate, pentamidine and amphotericin B for the treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis by Leishmania guyanensis. An Bras Dermatol 86: 1092–1101.
Prata A, Silva-Vergara ML, Costa L, Rocha A, Krolewiecki A, Silva JC, de Paula EV, Pimenta Junior FG, Giraldo LE, 2003. Efficacy of azithromycin in the treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop 36: 65–69.
Krolewiecki AJ, Romero HD, Cajal SP, Abraham D, Mimori T, Matsumoto T, Juarez M, Taranto NJ, 2007. A randomized clinical trial comparing oral azithromycin and meglumine antimoniate for the treatment of American cutaneous leishmaniasis caused by Leishmania (Viannia) braziliensis. Am J Trop Med Hyg 77: 640–646.
Alrajhi AA, Ibrahim EA, De Vol EB, Khairat M, Faris RM, Maguire JH, 2002. Fluconazole for the treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis caused by Leishmania major. N Engl J Med 346: 891–895.
Emad M, Hayati F, Fallahzadeh MK, Namazi MR, 2011. Superior efficacy of oral fluconazole 400 mg daily versus oral fluconazole 200 mg daily in the treatment of cutaneous Leishmania major infection: a randomized clinical trial. J Am Acad Dermatol 64: 606–608.
Sousa AQ, Frutuoso MS, Moraes EA, Pearson RD, Pompeu MM, 2011. High-dose oral fluconazole therapy effective for cutaneous leishmaniasis due to Leishmania (Vianna) braziliensis. Clin Infect Dis 53: 693–695.
Soto J, Arana BA, Toledo J, Rizzo N, Vega JC, Diaz A, Luz M, Gutierrez P, Arboleda M, Berman JD, Junge K, Engel J, Sindermann H, 2004. Miltefosine for new world cutaneous leishmaniasis. Clin Infect Dis 38: 1266–1272.
Soto J, Toledo J, Gutierrez P, Nicholls RS, Padilla J, Engel J, Fischer C, Voss A, Berman J, 2001. Treatment of american cutaneous leishmaniasis with miltefosine, an oral agent. Clin Infect Dis 33: E57–E61.
Hepburn NC, Tidman MJ, Hunter JA, 1994. Aminosidine (paromomycin) versus sodium stibogluconate for the treatment of American cutaneous leishmaniasis. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 88: 700–703.
Soto J, Grogl M, Berman J, Olliaro P, 1994. Limited efficacy of injectable aminosidine as single-agent therapy for Colombian cutaneous leishmaniasis. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 88: 695–698.
Ben Salah A, Ben Messaoud N, Guedri E, Zaatour A, Ben Alaya N, Bettaieb J, Gharbi A, Belhadj Hamida N, Boukthir A, Chlif S, Abdelhamid K, El Ahmadi Z, Louzir H, Mokni M, Morizot G, Buffet P, Smith PL, Kopydlowski KM, Kreishman-Deitrick M, Smith KS, Nielsen CJ, Ullman DR, Norwood JA, Thorne GD, McCarthy WF, Adams RC, Rice RM, Tang D, Berman J, Ransom J, Magill AJ, Grogl M, 2013. Topical paromomycin with or without gentamicin for cutaneous leishmaniasis. N Engl J Med 368: 524–532.
Ben Salah A, Buffet PA, Morizot G, Ben Massoud N, Zaatour A, Ben Alaya N, Haj Hamida NB, El Ahmadi Z, Downs MT, Smith PL, Dellagi K, Grogl M, 2009. WR279,396, a third generation aminoglycoside ointment for the treatment of Leishmania major cutaneous leishmaniasis: a phase 2, randomized, double blind, placebo controlled study. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 3: e432.
El-On J, Jacobs GP, Witztum E, Greenblatt CL, 1984. Development of topical treatment for cutaneous leishmaniasis caused by Leishmania major in experimental animals. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 26: 745–751.
Grogl M, Schuster BG, Ellis WY, Berman JD, 1999. Successful topical treatment of murine cutaneous leishmaniasis with a combination of paromomycin (aminosidine) and gentamicin. J Parasitol 85: 354–359.
Armijos RX, Weigel MM, Calvopina M, Mancheno M, Rodriguez R, 2004. Comparison of the effectiveness of two topical paromomycin treatments versus meglumine antimoniate for new world cutaneous leishmaniasis. Acta Trop 91: 153–160.
Soto J, Fuya P, Herrera R, Berman J, 1998. Topical paromomycin/methylbenzethonium chloride plus parenteral meglumine antimonate as treatment for American cutaneous leishmaniasis: controlled study. Clin Infect Dis 26: 56–58.
Dedet JP, Pradinaud R, Gay F, 1989. Epidemiological aspects of human cutaneous leishmaniasis in French Guiana. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 83: 616–620.
Gangneux JP, Sauzet S, Donnard S, Meyer N, Cornillet A, Pratlong F, Guiguen C, 2007. Recurrent American cutaneous leishmaniasis. Emerg Infect Dis 13: 1436–1438.
Nacher M, Carme B, Sainte Marie D, Couppie P, Clyti E, Guibert P, Pradinaud R, 2001. Influence of clinical presentation on the efficacy of a short course of pentamidine in the treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis in French Guiana. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 95: 331–336.
Simon S, Veron V, Carme B, 2010. Leishmania spp. identification by polymerase chain reaction–restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis and its applications in French Guiana. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 66: 175–180.
Ginouves M, Carme B, Couppie P, Prevot G, 2014. Comparison of tetrazolium salt assays for evaluation of drug activity against Leishmania spp. J Clin Microbiol 52: 2131–2138.
Trager W, 1969. Pteridine requirement of the hemoflagellate Leishmania tarentolae. J Protozool 16: 372–375.
Jain M, Dole VS, Myler PJ, Stuart KD, Madhubala R, 2007. Role of biopterin transporter (BT1) gene on growth and infectivity of Leishmania. AJBB 3: 199–206.
Pal JK, Joshi-Purandare M, 2001. Dose-dependent differential effect of hemin on protein synthesis and cell proliferation in Leishmania donovani promastigotes cultured in vitro. J Biosci 26: 225–231.
Moreira ES, Soares RM, Petrillo-Peixoto M de L, 1995. Glucantime susceptibility of Leishmania promastigotes under variable growth conditions. Parasitol Res 81: 291–295.
Nacher M, Carme B, Sainte Marie D, Couppie P, Clyti E, Guibert P, Pradinaud R, 2001. Seasonal fluctuations of incubation, healing delays, and clinical presentation of cutaneous leishmaniasis in French Guiana. J Parasitol 87: 1495–1498.
Vermeersch M, da Luz RI, Tote K, Timmermans JP, Cos P, Maes L, 2009. In vitro susceptibilities of Leishmania donovani promastigote and amastigote stages to antileishmanial reference drugs: practical relevance of stage-specific differences. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 53: 3855–3859.
Croft SL, Sundar S, Fairlamb AH, 2006. Drug resistance in leishmaniasis. Clin Microbiol Rev 19: 111–126.
Neal RA, 1989. Experimental chemotherapy. Killick-Kendrick R, Peters N, eds. The Leishmaniases. London, UK: Academic Press, 793–845.
Berman JD, Wyler DJ, 1980. An in vitro model for investigation of chemotherapeutic agents in leishmaniasis. J Infect Dis 142: 83–86.
Sereno D, Lemesre JL, 1997. Axenically cultured amastigote forms as an in vitro model for investigation of antileishmanial agents. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 41: 972–976.
Kumar D, Kulshrestha A, Singh R, Salotra P, 2009. In vitro susceptibility of field isolates of Leishmania donovani to miltefosine and amphotericin B: correlation with sodium antimony gluconate susceptibility and implications for treatment in areas of endemicity. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 53: 835–838.
Lira R, Sundar S, Makharia A, Kenney R, Gam A, Saraiva E, Sacks D, 1999. Evidence that the high incidence of treatment failures in Indian kala-azar is due to the emergence of antimony-resistant strains of Leishmania donovani. J Infect Dis 180: 564–567.
Ibrahim ME, Hag-Ali M, el-Hassan AM, Theander TG, Kharazmi A, 1994. Leishmania resistant to sodium stibogluconate: drug-associated macrophage-dependent killing. Parasitol Res 80: 569–574.
Grogl M, Thomason TN, Franke ED, 1992. Drug resistance in leishmaniasis: its implication in systemic chemotherapy of cutaneous and mucocutaneous disease. Am J Trop Med Hyg 47: 117–126.
Azeredo-Coutinho RB, Mendonca SC, Callahan H, Portal AC, Max G, 2007. Sensitivity of Leishmania braziliensis promastigotes to meglumine antimoniate (glucantime) is higher than that of other Leishmania species and correlates with response to therapy in American tegumentary leishmaniasis. J Parasitol 93: 688–693.
Berman JD, Edwards N, King M, Grogl M, 1989. Biochemistry of pentostam resistant Leishmania. Am J Trop Med Hyg 40: 159–164.
Gupta N, Goyal N, Rastogi AK, 2001. In vitro cultivation and characterization of axenic amastigotes of Leishmania. Trends Parasitol 17: 150–153.
Seifert K, Escobar P, Croft SL, 2010. In vitro activity of anti-leishmanial drugs against Leishmania donovani is host cell dependent. J Antimicrob Chemother 65: 508–511.
Zauli-Nascimento RC, Miguel DC, Yokoyama-Yasunaka JK, Pereira LI, Pelli de Oliveira MA, Ribeiro-Dias F, Dorta ML, Uliana SR, 2010. In vitro sensitivity of Leishmania (Viannia) braziliensis and Leishmania (Leishmania) amazonensis Brazilian isolates to meglumine antimoniate and amphotericin B. Trop Med Int Health 15: 68–76.
Grogl M, Oduola AM, Cordero LD, Kyle DE, 1989. Leishmania spp.: development of pentostam-resistant clones in vitro by discontinuous drug exposure. Exp Parasitol 69: 78–90.
Croft SL, 2001. Monitoring drug resistance in leishmaniasis. Trop Med Int Health 6: 899–905.
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