Author:
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1.
Wright A, Zignol M, Van Deun A, Falzon D, Gerdes SR, Feldman K, Hoffner S, Drobniewski F, Barrera L, van Soolingen D, Boulabhal F, Paramasivan CN, Kam KM, Mitarai S, Nunn P, Raviglione M, 2009. Epidemiology of antituberculosis drug resistance 2002–07: an updated analysis of the Global Project on Anti-Tuberculosis Drug Resistance Surveillance. Lancet 373: 1861–1873.
-
2.
World Health Organization (WHO), 2012. Global Tuberculosis Control: 2012. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO.
-
3.
Muller B, Borrell S, Rose G, Gagneux S, 2013. The heterogeneous evolution of multidrug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Trends Genet 29: 160–169.
-
4.
Gandhi NR, Nunn P, Dheda K, Schaaf HS, Zignol M, van Soolingen D, Jensen P, Bayona J, 2010. Multidrug-resistant and extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis: a threat to global control of tuberculosis. Lancet 375: 1830–1843.
-
5.
Dukes Hamilton C, Sterling TR, Blumberg HM, Leonard M, McAuley J, Schlossberg D, Stout J, Huitt G, 2007. Extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis: are we learning from history or repeating it? Clin Infect Dis 45: 338–342.
-
6.
World Health Organization (WHO), 2010. Multi Drug and Extensively Drug Resistant TB (M/XDR-TB). 2010 Global Report on Surveillance and Response. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO.
-
7.
Cohen J, 2006. Infectious disease. Extensively drug-resistant TB gets foothold in South Africa. Science 313: 1554.
-
8.
Gandhi NR, Moll A, Sturm AW, Pawinski R, Govender T, Lalloo U, Zeller K, Andrews J, Friedland G, 2006. Extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis as a cause of death in patients co-infected with tuberculosis and HIV in a rural area of South Africa. Lancet 368: 1575–1580.
-
9.
Kwon YS, Kim YH, Suh GY, Chung MP, Kim H, Kwon OJ, Choi YS, Kim K, Kim J, Shim YM, Koh WJ, 2008. Treatment outcomes for HIV-uninfected patients with multidrug-resistant and extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis. Clin Infect Dis 47: 496–502.
-
10.
Kochi A, Vareldzis B, Styblo K, 1993. Multidrug-resistant tuberculosis and its control. Res Microbiol 144: 104–110.
-
11.
Telenti A, Imboden P, Marchesi F, Lowrie D, Cole S, Colston MJ, Matter L, Schopfer K, Bodmer T, 1993. Detection of rifampicin-resistance mutations in Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Lancet 341: 647–650.
-
12.
Ramaswamy S, Musser JM, 1998. Molecular genetic basis of antimicrobial agent resistance in Mycobacterium tuberculosis: 1998 update. Tuber Lung Dis 79: 3–29.
-
13.
Ramaswamy SV, Reich R, Dou SJ, Jasperse L, Pan X, Wanger A, Quitugua T, Graviss EA, 2003. Single nucleotide polymorphisms in genes associated with isoniazid resistance in Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 47: 1241–1250.
-
14.
Zhang Y, Yew WW, 2015. Mechanisms of drug resistance in Mycobacterium tuberculosis: update 2015. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 19: 1276–1289.
-
15.
Takiff HE, Salazar L, Guerrero C, Philipp W, Huang WM, Kreiswirth B, Cole ST, Jacobs WR Jr, Telenti A, 1994. Cloning and nucleotide sequence of Mycobacterium tuberculosis gyrA and gyrB genes and detection of quinolone resistance mutations. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 38: 773–780.
-
16.
Jugheli L, Bzekalava N, de Rijk P, Fissette K, Portaels F, Rigouts L, 2009. High level of cross-resistance between kanamycin, amikacin, and capreomycin among Mycobacterium tuberculosis isolates from Georgia and a close relation with mutations in the rrs gene. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 53: 5064–5068.
-
17.
Maus CE, Plikaytis BB, Shinnick TM, 2005. Molecular analysis of cross-resistance to capreomycin, kanamycin, amikacin, and viomycin in Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 49: 3192–3197.
-
18.
Chen W, Biswas T, Porter VR, Tsodikov OV, Garneau-Tsodikova S, 2011. Unusual regioversatility of acetyltransferase Eis, a cause of drug resistance in XDR-TB. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 108: 9804–9808.
-
19.
Maus CE, Plikaytis BB, Shinnick TM, 2005. Mutation of tlyA confers capreomycin resistance in Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 49: 571–577.
-
20.
Al-Hajoj S, Varghese B, Shoukri MM, Al-Omari R, Al-Herbwai M, Alrabiah F, Alrajhi AA, Abuljadayel N, Al-Thawadi S, Zumla A, Zignol M, Raviglione MC, Memish Z, 2013. Epidemiology of antituberculosis drug resistance in Saudi Arabia: findings of the first national survey. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 57: 2161–2166.
-
21.
Kamerbeek J, Schouls L, Kolk A, van Agterveld M, van Soolingen D, Kuijper S, Bunschoten A, Molhuizen H, Shaw R, Goyal M, van Embden J, 1994. Simultaneous detection and strain differentiation of Mycobacterium tuberculosis for diagnosis and epidemiology. J Clin Microbiol 35: 907–914.
-
22.
Supply P, Allix C, Lesjean S, Cardoso-Oelemann M, Rusch-Gerdes S, Willery E, Savine E, de Haas P, van Deutekom H, Roring S, Bifani P, Kurepina N, Kreiswirth B, Sola C, Rastogi N, Vatin V, Gutierrez MC, Fauville M, Niemann S, Skuce R, Kremer K, Locht C, van Soolingen D, 2006. Proposal for standardization of optimized mycobacterial interspersed repetitive unit-variable-number tandem repeat typing of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. J Clin Microbiol 44: 4498–4510.
-
23.
World Health Organization (WHO), 2009. Guidelines for Surveillance of Drug Resistance in Tuberculosis. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO.
-
24.
Varghese B, Hillemann A, Wijayanti DR, Shoukri M, Al-Rabiah F, Al-Omari R, Al-Hajoj S, 2013. New insight into the molecular characterization of isoniazid and rifampicin resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis strains from Saudi Arabia. Infect Genet Evol 12: 549–556.
-
25.
Varghese B, Shoukri M, Memish Z, Abuljadayel N, Alhakeem R, Al-Rabiah F, Al-Hajoj S, 2014. Occurrence of diverse mutations in isoniazid- and rifampicin-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis isolates from autochthonous and immigrant populations of Saudi Arabia. Microb Drug Resist 20: 623–631.
-
26.
Varghese B, Supply P, Allix-Beguec C, Shoukri M, Al-Omari R, Herbawi M, Al-Hajoj S, 2013. Admixed phylogenetic distribution of drug resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis in Saudi Arabia. PLoS One 8: e55598.
-
27.
Varghese B, al-Omari R, Grimshaw C, Al-Hajoj S, 2013. Endogenous reactivation followed by exogenous re-infection with drug resistant strains, a new challenge for tuberculosis control in Saudi Arabia. Tuberculosis (Edinb) 93: 246–249.
-
28.
Shah NS, Wright A, Bai GH, Barrera L, Boulahbal F, Martin-Casabona N, Drobniewski F, Gilpin C, Havelkova M, Lepe R, Lumb R, Metchock B, Portaels F, Rodrigues MF, Rusch-Gerdes S, Van Deun A, Vincent V, Laserson K, Wells C, Cegielski JP, 2007. Worldwide emergence of extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis. Emerg Infect Dis 13: 380–387.
-
29.
Li X, Wang H, Jing H, Wang Y, Yu C, Wang J, Liu Z, Graviss EA, Ma X, 2012. Population-based surveillance of extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis in Shandong Province, China. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 16: 612–614.
-
30.
Menon S, Dharmshale S, Chande C, Gohil A, Lilani S, Mohammad S, Joshi A, Chowdhary A, Bharadwaj R, 2012. Drug resistance profiles of Mycobacterium tuberculosis isolates to first line anti-tuberculous drugs: a five years study. Lung India 29: 227–231.
-
31.
Lee AS, Lim IH, Tang LL, Wong SY, 2005. High frequency of mutations in the rpoB gene in rifampin-resistant clinical isolates of Mycobacterium tuberculosis from Singapore. J Clin Microbiol 43: 2026–2027.
-
32.
Madania A, Habous M, Zarzour H, Ghoury I, Hebbo B, 2012. Characterization of mutations causing rifampicin and isoniazid resistance of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in Syria. Pol J Microbiol 61: 23–32.
-
33.
Poudel A, Nakajima C, Fukushima Y, Suzuki H, Pandey BD, Maharjan B, Suzuki Y, 2012. Molecular characterization of multidrug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis isolated in Nepal. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 56: 2831–2836.
-
34.
Hu Y, Hoffner S, Wu L, Zhao Q, Jiang W, Xu B, 2013. Prevalence and the genetic characterization of second-line and extensively drug resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis in rural China. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 57: 3857–3863.
-
35.
Jnawali HN, Hwang SC, Park YK, Kim H, Lee YS, Chung GT, Choe KH, Ryoo S, 2013. Characterization of mutations in multi- and extensive drug resistance among strains of Mycobacterium tuberculosis clinical isolates in Republic of Korea. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 76: 187–196.
-
36.
Ali A, Hasan R, Jabeen K, Jabeen N, Qadeer E, Hasan Z, 2011. Characterization of mutations conferring extensive drug resistance to Mycobacterium tuberculosis isolates in Pakistan. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 55: 5654–5659.
-
37.
Al-Mutairi NM, Ahmad S, Mokaddas E, 2011. First report of molecular detection of fluoroquinolone resistance-associated gyrA mutations in multidrug-resistant clinical Mycobacterium tuberculosis isolates in Kuwait. BMC Res Notes 4: 123.
-
38.
General Authority for Statistics, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, 2013. Statistical Year Book-1434. Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: CDSI.
-
39.
Abouzeid MS, Zumla AI, Felemban S, Alotaibi B, O'Grady J, Memish ZA, 2012. Tuberculosis trends in Saudis and non-Saudis in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: a 10 year retrospective study (2000–2009). PLoS One 7: e39478.
-
40.
Said HM, Kock MM, Ismail NA, Mphahlele M, Baba K, Omar SV, Osman AG, Hoosen AA, Ehlers MM, 2012. Molecular characterization and second-line antituberculosis drug resistance patterns of multidrug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis isolates from the northern region of South Africa. J Clin Microbiol 50: 2857–2862.
| Past two years | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 27 | 27 | 9 |
| Full Text Views | 439 | 139 | 1 |
| PDF Downloads | 137 | 32 | 0 |
First Insight Into the Fluoroquinolone and Aminoglycoside Resistance of Multidrug-Resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis in Saudi Arabia
Bright Varghese
Bright Varghese
Mycobacteriology Research Section, Department of Infection and Immunity, King Faisal Specialist Hospital and Research Centre, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
Search for other papers by Bright Varghese in
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Search for other papers by Bright Varghese in
Current site
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Sahal Al-Hajoj
Sahal Al-Hajoj
Mycobacteriology Research Section, Department of Infection and Immunity, King Faisal Specialist Hospital and Research Centre, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
Search for other papers by Sahal Al-Hajoj in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by Sahal Al-Hajoj in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
In Saudi Arabia, there were no nationwide screening studies conducted so far to determine the aminoglycoside and fluoroquinolone resistance among multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) isolates. Therefore, as the first attempt in the country, a retrospective analysis has been conducted on a nationwide collection of 2,956 M. tuberculosis clinical isolates screened with phenotypic drug susceptibility testing to define MDR-TB. Enrolled MDR-TB isolates were subjected to second-line drug susceptibility testing, detection of mutations conferring resistance to aminoglycosides and fluoroquinolone, followed by 24-loci mycobacterial interspersed repetitive unit–variable number of tandem repeat typing and spoligotyping. Overall, 83 isolates were identified as MDR-TB, and 13 (15.7%) isolates showed resistance to second-line drugs. Moxifloxacin (low level) showed higher resistant rates (10.8%) followed by ofloxacin (7.2%), capreomycin (3.6%), kanamycin (3.6%), and amikacin (2.4%). Overall fluoroquinolone resistance was 12%, whereas aminoglycoside resistance was 7.2%. Predominant mutations conferring resistance to fluoroquinolone were found in gyrA A90V and D94G, whereas aminoglycoside resistance was observed only with rrs gene A1401G mutation. The corresponding strain lineages predominated with Indo-Oceanic and East-African Indian origin. Interestingly, none of the isolates with second-line drug resistance was defined as extensively drug-resistant TB (XDR-TB). Surprisingly, many isolates (50.6%) were panresistant to first-line drugs. Saudi Arabia faces considerable burden of fluoroquinolone- and aminoglycoside-resistant MDR-TB. Higher incidence of panresistant MDR-TB reveals a threat for the emergence of XDR-TB strains in the near future.
Author Notes
Authors' addresses: Bright Varghese and Sahal Al-Hajoj, Mycobacteriology Research Section, Department of Infection and Immunity, King Faisal Specialist Hospital and Research Centre, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, E-mails: bvarghese99@kfshrc.edu.sa and hajoj@kfshrc.edu.sa.
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1.
Wright A, Zignol M, Van Deun A, Falzon D, Gerdes SR, Feldman K, Hoffner S, Drobniewski F, Barrera L, van Soolingen D, Boulabhal F, Paramasivan CN, Kam KM, Mitarai S, Nunn P, Raviglione M, 2009. Epidemiology of antituberculosis drug resistance 2002–07: an updated analysis of the Global Project on Anti-Tuberculosis Drug Resistance Surveillance. Lancet 373: 1861–1873.
-
2.
World Health Organization (WHO), 2012. Global Tuberculosis Control: 2012. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO.
-
3.
Muller B, Borrell S, Rose G, Gagneux S, 2013. The heterogeneous evolution of multidrug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Trends Genet 29: 160–169.
-
4.
Gandhi NR, Nunn P, Dheda K, Schaaf HS, Zignol M, van Soolingen D, Jensen P, Bayona J, 2010. Multidrug-resistant and extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis: a threat to global control of tuberculosis. Lancet 375: 1830–1843.
-
5.
Dukes Hamilton C, Sterling TR, Blumberg HM, Leonard M, McAuley J, Schlossberg D, Stout J, Huitt G, 2007. Extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis: are we learning from history or repeating it? Clin Infect Dis 45: 338–342.
-
6.
World Health Organization (WHO), 2010. Multi Drug and Extensively Drug Resistant TB (M/XDR-TB). 2010 Global Report on Surveillance and Response. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO.
-
7.
Cohen J, 2006. Infectious disease. Extensively drug-resistant TB gets foothold in South Africa. Science 313: 1554.
-
8.
Gandhi NR, Moll A, Sturm AW, Pawinski R, Govender T, Lalloo U, Zeller K, Andrews J, Friedland G, 2006. Extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis as a cause of death in patients co-infected with tuberculosis and HIV in a rural area of South Africa. Lancet 368: 1575–1580.
-
9.
Kwon YS, Kim YH, Suh GY, Chung MP, Kim H, Kwon OJ, Choi YS, Kim K, Kim J, Shim YM, Koh WJ, 2008. Treatment outcomes for HIV-uninfected patients with multidrug-resistant and extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis. Clin Infect Dis 47: 496–502.
-
10.
Kochi A, Vareldzis B, Styblo K, 1993. Multidrug-resistant tuberculosis and its control. Res Microbiol 144: 104–110.
-
11.
Telenti A, Imboden P, Marchesi F, Lowrie D, Cole S, Colston MJ, Matter L, Schopfer K, Bodmer T, 1993. Detection of rifampicin-resistance mutations in Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Lancet 341: 647–650.
-
12.
Ramaswamy S, Musser JM, 1998. Molecular genetic basis of antimicrobial agent resistance in Mycobacterium tuberculosis: 1998 update. Tuber Lung Dis 79: 3–29.
-
13.
Ramaswamy SV, Reich R, Dou SJ, Jasperse L, Pan X, Wanger A, Quitugua T, Graviss EA, 2003. Single nucleotide polymorphisms in genes associated with isoniazid resistance in Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 47: 1241–1250.
-
14.
Zhang Y, Yew WW, 2015. Mechanisms of drug resistance in Mycobacterium tuberculosis: update 2015. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 19: 1276–1289.
-
15.
Takiff HE, Salazar L, Guerrero C, Philipp W, Huang WM, Kreiswirth B, Cole ST, Jacobs WR Jr, Telenti A, 1994. Cloning and nucleotide sequence of Mycobacterium tuberculosis gyrA and gyrB genes and detection of quinolone resistance mutations. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 38: 773–780.
-
16.
Jugheli L, Bzekalava N, de Rijk P, Fissette K, Portaels F, Rigouts L, 2009. High level of cross-resistance between kanamycin, amikacin, and capreomycin among Mycobacterium tuberculosis isolates from Georgia and a close relation with mutations in the rrs gene. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 53: 5064–5068.
-
17.
Maus CE, Plikaytis BB, Shinnick TM, 2005. Molecular analysis of cross-resistance to capreomycin, kanamycin, amikacin, and viomycin in Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 49: 3192–3197.
-
18.
Chen W, Biswas T, Porter VR, Tsodikov OV, Garneau-Tsodikova S, 2011. Unusual regioversatility of acetyltransferase Eis, a cause of drug resistance in XDR-TB. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 108: 9804–9808.
-
19.
Maus CE, Plikaytis BB, Shinnick TM, 2005. Mutation of tlyA confers capreomycin resistance in Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 49: 571–577.
-
20.
Al-Hajoj S, Varghese B, Shoukri MM, Al-Omari R, Al-Herbwai M, Alrabiah F, Alrajhi AA, Abuljadayel N, Al-Thawadi S, Zumla A, Zignol M, Raviglione MC, Memish Z, 2013. Epidemiology of antituberculosis drug resistance in Saudi Arabia: findings of the first national survey. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 57: 2161–2166.
-
21.
Kamerbeek J, Schouls L, Kolk A, van Agterveld M, van Soolingen D, Kuijper S, Bunschoten A, Molhuizen H, Shaw R, Goyal M, van Embden J, 1994. Simultaneous detection and strain differentiation of Mycobacterium tuberculosis for diagnosis and epidemiology. J Clin Microbiol 35: 907–914.
-
22.
Supply P, Allix C, Lesjean S, Cardoso-Oelemann M, Rusch-Gerdes S, Willery E, Savine E, de Haas P, van Deutekom H, Roring S, Bifani P, Kurepina N, Kreiswirth B, Sola C, Rastogi N, Vatin V, Gutierrez MC, Fauville M, Niemann S, Skuce R, Kremer K, Locht C, van Soolingen D, 2006. Proposal for standardization of optimized mycobacterial interspersed repetitive unit-variable-number tandem repeat typing of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. J Clin Microbiol 44: 4498–4510.
-
23.
World Health Organization (WHO), 2009. Guidelines for Surveillance of Drug Resistance in Tuberculosis. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO.
-
24.
Varghese B, Hillemann A, Wijayanti DR, Shoukri M, Al-Rabiah F, Al-Omari R, Al-Hajoj S, 2013. New insight into the molecular characterization of isoniazid and rifampicin resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis strains from Saudi Arabia. Infect Genet Evol 12: 549–556.
-
25.
Varghese B, Shoukri M, Memish Z, Abuljadayel N, Alhakeem R, Al-Rabiah F, Al-Hajoj S, 2014. Occurrence of diverse mutations in isoniazid- and rifampicin-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis isolates from autochthonous and immigrant populations of Saudi Arabia. Microb Drug Resist 20: 623–631.
-
26.
Varghese B, Supply P, Allix-Beguec C, Shoukri M, Al-Omari R, Herbawi M, Al-Hajoj S, 2013. Admixed phylogenetic distribution of drug resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis in Saudi Arabia. PLoS One 8: e55598.
-
27.
Varghese B, al-Omari R, Grimshaw C, Al-Hajoj S, 2013. Endogenous reactivation followed by exogenous re-infection with drug resistant strains, a new challenge for tuberculosis control in Saudi Arabia. Tuberculosis (Edinb) 93: 246–249.
-
28.
Shah NS, Wright A, Bai GH, Barrera L, Boulahbal F, Martin-Casabona N, Drobniewski F, Gilpin C, Havelkova M, Lepe R, Lumb R, Metchock B, Portaels F, Rodrigues MF, Rusch-Gerdes S, Van Deun A, Vincent V, Laserson K, Wells C, Cegielski JP, 2007. Worldwide emergence of extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis. Emerg Infect Dis 13: 380–387.
-
29.
Li X, Wang H, Jing H, Wang Y, Yu C, Wang J, Liu Z, Graviss EA, Ma X, 2012. Population-based surveillance of extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis in Shandong Province, China. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 16: 612–614.
-
30.
Menon S, Dharmshale S, Chande C, Gohil A, Lilani S, Mohammad S, Joshi A, Chowdhary A, Bharadwaj R, 2012. Drug resistance profiles of Mycobacterium tuberculosis isolates to first line anti-tuberculous drugs: a five years study. Lung India 29: 227–231.
-
31.
Lee AS, Lim IH, Tang LL, Wong SY, 2005. High frequency of mutations in the rpoB gene in rifampin-resistant clinical isolates of Mycobacterium tuberculosis from Singapore. J Clin Microbiol 43: 2026–2027.
-
32.
Madania A, Habous M, Zarzour H, Ghoury I, Hebbo B, 2012. Characterization of mutations causing rifampicin and isoniazid resistance of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in Syria. Pol J Microbiol 61: 23–32.
-
33.
Poudel A, Nakajima C, Fukushima Y, Suzuki H, Pandey BD, Maharjan B, Suzuki Y, 2012. Molecular characterization of multidrug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis isolated in Nepal. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 56: 2831–2836.
-
34.
Hu Y, Hoffner S, Wu L, Zhao Q, Jiang W, Xu B, 2013. Prevalence and the genetic characterization of second-line and extensively drug resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis in rural China. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 57: 3857–3863.
-
35.
Jnawali HN, Hwang SC, Park YK, Kim H, Lee YS, Chung GT, Choe KH, Ryoo S, 2013. Characterization of mutations in multi- and extensive drug resistance among strains of Mycobacterium tuberculosis clinical isolates in Republic of Korea. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 76: 187–196.
-
36.
Ali A, Hasan R, Jabeen K, Jabeen N, Qadeer E, Hasan Z, 2011. Characterization of mutations conferring extensive drug resistance to Mycobacterium tuberculosis isolates in Pakistan. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 55: 5654–5659.
-
37.
Al-Mutairi NM, Ahmad S, Mokaddas E, 2011. First report of molecular detection of fluoroquinolone resistance-associated gyrA mutations in multidrug-resistant clinical Mycobacterium tuberculosis isolates in Kuwait. BMC Res Notes 4: 123.
-
38.
General Authority for Statistics, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, 2013. Statistical Year Book-1434. Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: CDSI.
-
39.
Abouzeid MS, Zumla AI, Felemban S, Alotaibi B, O'Grady J, Memish ZA, 2012. Tuberculosis trends in Saudis and non-Saudis in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: a 10 year retrospective study (2000–2009). PLoS One 7: e39478.
-
40.
Said HM, Kock MM, Ismail NA, Mphahlele M, Baba K, Omar SV, Osman AG, Hoosen AA, Ehlers MM, 2012. Molecular characterization and second-line antituberculosis drug resistance patterns of multidrug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis isolates from the northern region of South Africa. J Clin Microbiol 50: 2857–2862.
| Past two years | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 27 | 27 | 9 |
| Full Text Views | 439 | 139 | 1 |
| PDF Downloads | 137 | 32 | 0 |