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Household Microbial Water Quality Testing in a Peruvian Demographic and Health Survey: Evaluation of the Compartment Bag Test for Escherichia coli
Alice Wang
Alice Wang
Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina.
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Lanakila McMahan
Lanakila McMahan
U.S. Agency for International Development, Washington, District of Columbia.
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Shea Rutstein
Shea Rutstein
ICF Macro, Beltsville, Maryland.
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Christine Stauber
Christine Stauber
School of Public Health, Georgia State University, Atlanta, Georgia.
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Jorge Reyes
Jorge Reyes
Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática, Lima, Peru.
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Mark D. Sobsey
Mark D. Sobsey
Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina.
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The Joint Monitoring Program relies on household surveys to classify access to improved water sources instead of measuring microbiological quality. The aim of this research was to pilot a novel test for Escherichia coli quantification of household drinking water in the 2011 Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) in Peru. In the Compartment Bag Test (CBT), a 100-mL water sample is supplemented with chromogenic medium to support the growth of E. coli, poured into a bag with compartments, and incubated. A color change indicates E. coli growth, and the concentration of E. coli/100 mL is estimated as a most probable number. Triplicate water samples from 704 households were collected; one sample was analyzed in the field using the CBT, another replicate sample using the CBT was analyzed by reference laboratories, and one sample using membrane filtration (MF) was analyzed by reference laboratories. There were no statistically significant differences in E. coli concentrations between the field and laboratory CBT results, or when compared with MF results. These results suggest that the CBT for E. coli is an effective method to quantify fecal bacteria in household drinking water. The CBT can be incorporated into DHS and other national household surveys as a direct measure of drinking water safety based on microbial quality to better document access to safe drinking water.
Author Notes
Financial support: This work was supported in part by MEASURE Evaluation, which is funded by the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID)—at the time of this research through cooperative agreement GHA-A-00-08-00003-00—and implemented by the Carolina Population Center at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. The opinions expressed are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of USAID or the U.S. government. Lanakila McMahan was supported in part by a STAR Graduate Fellowship from US EPA.
Authors' addresses: Alice Wang and Mark D. Sobsey, Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, E-mails: walice@live.unc.edu and sobsey@email.unc.edu. Lanakila McMahan, U.S. Agency for International Development, Grand Challenges for Development, Washington, DC, E-mail: kumcmahan@gmail.com. Shea Rutstein, ICF International, The Demographics and Health Surveys Program, Fairfax, VA, E-mail: shea.rutstein@icfi.com. Christine Stauber, Institute of Public Health, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, E-mail: cstauber@gsu.edu. Jorge Reyes, Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática, Encuesta Demografica y de Salud Familiar, Lima, Peru, E-mail: sreyes@terra.com.pe.
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1.
World Health Organization/United Nations Children's Fund, 2014. Progress on Sanitation and Drinking Water: 2014 Update. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.
-
2.
World Health Organization/United Nations Children's Fund, 2010. Progress on Sanitation and Drinking Water: 2010 Update. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.
-
3.
Onda K, LoBuglio J, Bartram J, 2012. Global access to safe water: accounting for water quality and the resulting impact on MDG progress. Int J Environ Res Public Health 9: 880–894.
-
4.
Bain R, Cronk R, Hossain R, Bonjour S, Onda K, Wright J, Yang H, Slaymaker T, Hunter P, Pruss-Ustun A, Bartram J, 2014. Global assessment of exposure to faecal contamination through drinking water based on a systematic review. Trop Med Int Health 19: 917–927.
-
5.
Shaheed A, Orgill J, Montgomery M, Jeuland M, Brown J, 2014. Why “improved” water sources are not always safe. Bull World Health Organ 92: 229–308.
-
6.
McMahan L, Devine A, Grunden A, Sobsey M, 2011. Validation of the H2S method to detect bacteria of fecal origin by cultured and molecular methods. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 92: 1287–1295.
-
7.
Stauber C, Miller C, Cantrell B, Kroell K, 2014. Evaluation of the compartment bag test for the detection of Escherichia coli in water. J Microbiol Methods 99: 66–70.
-
8.
World Health Organization, 2004. Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization, 392–394.
-
9.
Demographic and Health Surveys, 1996. Sampling Manual DHS-III Basic Documentation No. 6. Calverton, MD: Macro International Inc.
-
10.
Brown J, Stauber C, Murphy J, Khan A, Mu T, Elliott M, Sobsey M, 2011. Ambient-temperature incubation for the field detection of Escherichia coli in drinking water. J Appl Microbiol 110: 915–923.
-
11.
Cochran WG, 1950. Estimation of bacterial densities by means of the “most probable number.” Biometrics 6: 105–116.
-
12.
Klee AJ, 1993. A computer program for the determination of most probable number and its confidence limits. J Microbiol Methods 18: 91–98.
-
13.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), 2008. Addendum to New Microbiology Test Methods for E. coli. Washington, DC: USEPA. Available at: http://www.cdph.ca.gov/certlic/labs/Documents/ELAPAddendMicro.pdf.
-
14.
McFeters G, Camper A, 1983. Enumeration of indicator bacteria exposed to chlorine. Adv Appl Microbiol 29: 177–193.
-
15.
Bain R, Bartram J, Elliott M, Matthews R, McMahan L, Tung R, Chuang P, Gundry S, 2012. A summary catalogue of microbial drinking water tests for low and medium resource settings. Int J Environ Res Public Health 9: 1609–1625.
-
16.
Crocker J, Bartram J, 2014. Comparison and cost analysis of drinking water quality monitoring requirements versus practice in seven developing countries. Int J Environ Res Public Health 11: 7333–7346.
-
17.
Brenniman GR, Rosenberg SH, Northrop RL, 1981. Microbial sampling variables and recreational water quality standards. Am J Public Health 71: 283–289.
| Past two years | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 460 | 390 | 30 |
| Full Text Views | 637 | 16 | 0 |
| PDF Downloads | 393 | 8 | 0 |