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Extent of Fecal Contamination of Household Drinking Water in Nepal: Further Analysis of Nepal Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey 2014
Pragya Kandel
Pragya Kandel
Research and Action in Public Health, Kathmandu, Nepal.
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Ritu Kunwar
Ritu Kunwar
School of Public Health and Community Medicine, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia.
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Prabhat Lamichhane
Prabhat Lamichhane
Department of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia.
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Surendra Karki
Surendra Karki
School of Public Health and Community Medicine, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia.
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Water sources classified as “improved” may not necessarily provide safe drinking water for householders. We analyzed data from Nepal Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey 2014 to explore the extent of fecal contamination of household drinking water. Fecal contamination was detected in 81.2% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 77.9–84.2) household drinking water from improved sources and 89.6% (95% CI: 80.4–94.7) in water samples from unimproved sources. In adjusted analysis, there was no difference in odds of fecal contamination of household drinking water between improved and unimproved sources. We observed significantly lower odds of fecal contamination of drinking water in households in higher wealth quintiles, where soap and water were available for handwashing and in households employing water treatment. The extent of contamination of drinking water as observed in this study highlights the huge amount of effort required to ensure the provision of safely managed water in Nepal by 2030 as aimed in sustainable development goals.
Author Notes
Authors' addresses: Pragya Kandel, Research and Action in Public Health, Kathmandu, Nepal, E-mail: kandelpragyaa@gmail.com. Ritu Kunwar and Surendra Karki, School of Public Health and Community Medicine, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia, E-mails: ritu.kunwarkarki@gmail.com and surendra.karki@gmail.com. Prabhat Lamichhane, Department of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, Clayton, Australia, E-mail: prabhatone@gmail.com.
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1.
Government of Nepal, National Planning Commission, 2013. Nepal Millennium Development Goals Progress Report 2013. Available at: http://www.np.undp.org/content/dam/nepal/docs/reports/millennium%20development%20goals/UNDP_NP_MDG_Report_2013.pdf. Accessed August 2, 2016.
-
2.
WHO/UNICEF, 2015. Improved and Unimproved Water and Sanitation Facilities. Available at: http://www.wssinfo.org/definitions-methods/watsan-categories/. Accessed August 2, 2016.
-
3.
Shaheed A, Orgill J, Montgomery MA, Jeuland MA, Brown J, 2014. Why “improved” water sources are not always safe. Bull World Health Organ 92: 283–289.
-
4.
United Nations, 2015. Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Available at: https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/21252030%20Agenda%20for%20Sustainable%20Development%20web.pdf. Accessed July 20, 2016.
-
5.
Central Bureau of Statistics, 2016. Nepal Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey 2014, Final Report. Kathmandu, Nepal: Central Bureau of Statistics and UNICEF Nepal.
-
6.
World Health Organization, 2011. Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality, 4th edition. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO. Available at: http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/44584/1/9789241548151_eng.pdf. Accessed April 20, 2016.
-
7.
Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics (BBS) and UNICEF Bangladesh, 2014. Bangladesh Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey 2012–2013. Available at: http://www.unicef.org/bangladesh/MICS_Final_21062015_Low.pdf. Accessed July 20, 2016.
-
8.
Ghana Statistical Service, 2014. Ghana Living Standard Survey Round 6 (GLSS 6): Main Report. Available at: http://www.statsghana.gov.gh/docfiles/glss6/GLSS6_Main%20Report.pdf. Accessed July 20, 2016.
-
9.
Institut National de la Statistique (INS) et UNICEF, 2015. Enquête par grappes à indicateurs multiples: MICS5 CONGO 2014–2015, Rapport de résultats clés. Brazzaville, Republic of the Congo: INS et UNICEF.
-
10.
The United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction, 2015. 25 April 2015 Gorkha Earthquake Disaster Risk Reduction Situation Report. Available at: http://www.unisdr.org/files/44592_gorkhaearthquakedisasterriskreducti.pdf. Accessed July 20, 2016.
-
11.
Bain R, Cronk R, Wright J, Yang H, Slaymaker T, Bartram J, 2014. Fecal contamination of drinking-water in low- and middle-income countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS Med 11: e1001644.
-
12.
Rosa G, Clasen T, 2010. Estimating the scope of household water treatment in low- and medium-income countries. Am J Trop Med Hyg 82: 289–300.
| Past two years | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 41 | 41 | 5 |
| Full Text Views | 335 | 109 | 1 |
| PDF Downloads | 113 | 28 | 0 |