Author:
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1.
Banerjee SG, Morella E, 2011. Africa's Water and Sanitation Infrastructure: Access, Affordability, and Alternatives. Washington, DC: The World Bank. http://elibrary.worldbank.org/doi/book/10.1596/978-0-8213-8457-2. Accessed January 22, 2016.
-
2.
World Bank, 2016. The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities. Available at: ib-net.org. Accessed March 1, 2016.
-
3.
Howard G, Pedley S, Barrett M, Nalubega M, Johal K, 2003. Risk factors contributing to microbiological contamination of shallow groundwater in Kampala, Uganda. Water Res 37: 3421–3429.
-
4.
Kulabako NR, Nalubega M, Thunvik R, 2007. Study of the impact of land use and hydrogeological settings on the shallow groundwater quality in a peri-urban area of Kampala, Uganda. Sci Total Environ 381: 180–199.
-
5.
Palamuleni LG, 2002. Effect of sanitation facilities, domestic solid waste disposal and hygiene practices on water quality in Malawi's urban poor areas: a case study of South Lunzu Township in the city of Blantyre. Phys Chem Earth Parts ABC 27: 845–850.
-
6.
Fisher MB, Williams AR, Jalloh MF, Saquee G, Bain RES, Bartram JK, 2015. Microbiological and chemical quality of packaged sachet water and household stored drinking water in Freetown, Sierra Leone. PLoS One 10: e0131772.
-
7.
Stoler J, Ahmed H, Frimpong LA, Bello M, 2015. Presence of Pseudomonas aeruginosa in coliform-free sachet drinking water in Ghana. Food Contr 55: 242–247.
-
8.
Stoler J, Tutu RA, Winslow K, 2015. Piped water flows but sachet consumption grows: the paradoxical drinking water landscape of an urban slum in Ashaiman, Ghana. Habitat Int 47: 52– 60.
-
9.
Williams AR, Bain RE, Fisher MB, Cronk R, Kelly ER, Bartram J, 2015. A systematic review and meta-analysis of fecal contamination and inadequate treatment of packaged water. PLoS One 10: e0140899.
-
10.
Kumpel E, Albert J, Peletz R, de Waal D, Hirn M, Danilenko A, Uhl V, Daw A, Khush R, 2016. Urban water services in fragile states: an analysis of drinking water sources and quality in Port Harcourt, Nigeria, and Monrovia, Liberia. Am J Trop Med Hyg 95: 229–238.
-
11.
Cronin A, Pedley S, Breslin N, Gibson J, 2006. Monitoring source and domestic water quality in parallel with sanitary risk identification in northern Mozambique to prioritise protection interventions. J Water Health 4: 333–345.
-
12.
Graham JP, Polizzotto ML, 2013. Pit latrines and their impacts on groundwater quality: a systematic review. Environ Health Perspect 121: 521–530.
-
13.
Hynds PD, Misstear BD, Gill LW, 2012. Development of a microbial contamination susceptibility model for private domestic groundwater sources. Water Resour Res 48: W12504.
-
14.
Kostyla C, Bain R, Cronk R, Bartram J, 2015. Seasonal variation of fecal contamination in drinking water sources in developing countries: a systematic review. Sci Total Environ 514: 333–343.
-
15.
Levy K, Hubbard AE, Nelson KL, Eisenberg JNS, 2009. Drivers of water quality variability in northern coastal Ecuador. Environ Sci Technol 43: 1788–1797.
-
16.
Driscoll FG, 1987. Groundwater and Wells. Saint Paul, MN: Johnson Division.
-
17.
Stoler J, Tutu RA, Ahmed H, Frimpong LA, Bello M, 2014. Sachet water quality and brand reputation in two low-income urban communities in Greater Accra, Ghana. Am J Trop Med Hyg 90: 272–278.
-
18.
Nwankwoala HO, Walter IO, 2012. Assessment of groundwater quality in shallow coastal aquifers of Okrika Island, Eastern Niger Delta, Nigeria. Ife J Sci 14: 297–304.
-
19.
Danert K, Adelike D, Gesti Canuto J, 2014. Manually Drilled Boreholes: Providing Water in Nigeria's Megacity of Lagos and Beyond. St. Gallen, Switzerland: Skat Foundation, UNICEF, and the Rural Water Supply Network.
-
20.
Shair and Partners, 2012. Port Harcourt Water Supply Project: Investment Plan Brief, Packages 1–5. Port Harcourt, Nigeria: Rivers State Ministry of Water Resources and Rural Development.
-
21.
World Health Organization, 1997. Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality: Volume 3: Surveillance and Control of Community Supplies, 2nd edition. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.
-
22.
Hartler T, Rollins L, 2008. Watersheds, Groundwater and Drinking Water: A Practical Guide. Davis, CA: University of California Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources.
-
23.
Stoler J, Fink G, Weeks JR, Otoo RA, Ampofo JA, Hill AG, 2012. When urban taps run dry: sachet water consumption and health effects in low income neighborhoods of Accra, Ghana. Health Place 18: 250–262.
-
24.
Uko ED, Tamunobereton-Ari I, 2013. Variability of climatic parameters in Port Harcourt, Nigeria. J Emerg Trends Eng Appl Sci 4: 727–730.
-
25.
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, 2008. Toxicological Profile for Aluminum. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
-
26.
Asia IO, Jegede SI, Jegede DA, Ize-Iyamu OK, Akpasubi EB, 2007. The effects of petroleum exploration and production operations on the heavy metals contents of soil and groundwater in the Niger Delta. Int J Phys Sci 2: 271–275.
-
27.
World Health Organization, 2011. Drinking Water Guidelines, 4th edition. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.
-
28.
Mushi D, Byamukama D, Kirschner AKT, Mach RL, Brunner K, Farnleitner AH, 2012. Sanitary inspection of wells using risk-of-contamination scoring indicates a high predictive ability for bacterial faecal pollution in the peri-urban tropical lowlands of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. J Water Health 10: 236.
-
29.
Patrick JM, Murcott S, Punsalan J, 2011. Coupling microbiological testing and sanitary surveys in drinking water quality programs: results from Capiz Province, Philippines. J Water Sanit Hyg Dev 1: 124.
| Past two years | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 128 | 128 | 30 |
| Full Text Views | 768 | 290 | 1 |
| PDF Downloads | 417 | 80 | 0 |
Seasonal Variation in Drinking and Domestic Water Sources and Quality in Port Harcourt, Nigeria
Emily Kumpel
Emily Kumpel
Aquaya Institute, Nairobi, Kenya.
Search for other papers by Emily Kumpel in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by Emily Kumpel in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Alicea Cock-Esteb
Alicea Cock-Esteb
Aquaya Institute, Nairobi, Kenya.
Search for other papers by Alicea Cock-Esteb in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by Alicea Cock-Esteb in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Michel Duret
Michel Duret
Water and Sanitation Program, World Bank, Abuja, Nigeria.
Search for other papers by Michel Duret in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by Michel Duret in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Dominick de Waal
Dominick de Waal
Water and Sanitation Program, World Bank, London, United Kingdom.
Search for other papers by Dominick de Waal in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by Dominick de Waal in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Ranjiv Khush
Ranjiv Khush
Aquaya Institute, Larkspur, California.
Search for other papers by Ranjiv Khush in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by Ranjiv Khush in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
We compared dry and rainy season water sources and their quality in the urban region of Port Harcourt, Nigeria. Representative sampling indicated that municipal water supplies represent < 1% of the water sources. Residents rely on privately constructed and maintained boreholes that are supplemented by commercially packaged bottled and sachet drinking water. Contamination by thermotolerant coliforms increased from 21% of drinking water sources in the dry season to 42% of drinking water sources in the rainy season (N = 356 and N = 397). The most significant increase was in sachet water, which showed the lowest frequencies of contamination in the dry season compared with other sources (15%, N = 186) but the highest frequencies during the rainy season (59%, N = 76). Only half as many respondents reported drinking sachet water in the rainy season as in the dry season. Respondents primarily used flush or pour-flush toilets connected to septic tanks (85%, N = 399). The remainder relied on pit latrines and hanging (pier) latrines that drained into surface waters. We found significant associations between fecal contamination in boreholes and the nearby presence of hanging latrines. Sanitary surveys of boreholes showed that more than half were well-constructed, and we did not identify associations between structural or site deficiencies and microbial water quality. The deterioration of drinking water quality during the rainy season is a serious public health risk for both untreated groundwater and commercially packaged water, highlighting a need to address gaps in monitoring and quality control.
Author Notes
Financial support: This research was supported by consulting contracts from the Water and Sanitation Program of the World Bank (http://www.wsp.org) to The Aquaya Institute. The consulting contracts supported contributions by Emily Kumpel, Alicea Cock-Esteb, and Ranjiv Khush to the study design, data collection, and analysis, and manuscript preparation.
Disclosures: Dominick de Waal and Michel Duret are employees of the Water and Sanitation Program of the World Bank, which funded this research. The study results were not subject to any restrictions or qualifications by the World Bank.
Authors' addresses: Emily Kumpel and Alicea Cock-Esteb, Aquaya Institute, Nairobi, Kenya, E-mail: ekumpel@umass.edu and alicea@aquaya.org. Michel Duret, Water and Sanitation Program, World Bank, Abuja, Nigeria, E-mail: mduret@worldbank.org. Dominick de Waal, Water and Sanitation Program, World Bank, London, United Kingdom, E-mails: ddewaal@worldbank.org. Ranjiv Khush, Aquaya Institute, Larkspur, CA, E-mail: ranjiv@aquaya.org.
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1.
Banerjee SG, Morella E, 2011. Africa's Water and Sanitation Infrastructure: Access, Affordability, and Alternatives. Washington, DC: The World Bank. http://elibrary.worldbank.org/doi/book/10.1596/978-0-8213-8457-2. Accessed January 22, 2016.
-
2.
World Bank, 2016. The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities. Available at: ib-net.org. Accessed March 1, 2016.
-
3.
Howard G, Pedley S, Barrett M, Nalubega M, Johal K, 2003. Risk factors contributing to microbiological contamination of shallow groundwater in Kampala, Uganda. Water Res 37: 3421–3429.
-
4.
Kulabako NR, Nalubega M, Thunvik R, 2007. Study of the impact of land use and hydrogeological settings on the shallow groundwater quality in a peri-urban area of Kampala, Uganda. Sci Total Environ 381: 180–199.
-
5.
Palamuleni LG, 2002. Effect of sanitation facilities, domestic solid waste disposal and hygiene practices on water quality in Malawi's urban poor areas: a case study of South Lunzu Township in the city of Blantyre. Phys Chem Earth Parts ABC 27: 845–850.
-
6.
Fisher MB, Williams AR, Jalloh MF, Saquee G, Bain RES, Bartram JK, 2015. Microbiological and chemical quality of packaged sachet water and household stored drinking water in Freetown, Sierra Leone. PLoS One 10: e0131772.
-
7.
Stoler J, Ahmed H, Frimpong LA, Bello M, 2015. Presence of Pseudomonas aeruginosa in coliform-free sachet drinking water in Ghana. Food Contr 55: 242–247.
-
8.
Stoler J, Tutu RA, Winslow K, 2015. Piped water flows but sachet consumption grows: the paradoxical drinking water landscape of an urban slum in Ashaiman, Ghana. Habitat Int 47: 52– 60.
-
9.
Williams AR, Bain RE, Fisher MB, Cronk R, Kelly ER, Bartram J, 2015. A systematic review and meta-analysis of fecal contamination and inadequate treatment of packaged water. PLoS One 10: e0140899.
-
10.
Kumpel E, Albert J, Peletz R, de Waal D, Hirn M, Danilenko A, Uhl V, Daw A, Khush R, 2016. Urban water services in fragile states: an analysis of drinking water sources and quality in Port Harcourt, Nigeria, and Monrovia, Liberia. Am J Trop Med Hyg 95: 229–238.
-
11.
Cronin A, Pedley S, Breslin N, Gibson J, 2006. Monitoring source and domestic water quality in parallel with sanitary risk identification in northern Mozambique to prioritise protection interventions. J Water Health 4: 333–345.
-
12.
Graham JP, Polizzotto ML, 2013. Pit latrines and their impacts on groundwater quality: a systematic review. Environ Health Perspect 121: 521–530.
-
13.
Hynds PD, Misstear BD, Gill LW, 2012. Development of a microbial contamination susceptibility model for private domestic groundwater sources. Water Resour Res 48: W12504.
-
14.
Kostyla C, Bain R, Cronk R, Bartram J, 2015. Seasonal variation of fecal contamination in drinking water sources in developing countries: a systematic review. Sci Total Environ 514: 333–343.
-
15.
Levy K, Hubbard AE, Nelson KL, Eisenberg JNS, 2009. Drivers of water quality variability in northern coastal Ecuador. Environ Sci Technol 43: 1788–1797.
-
16.
Driscoll FG, 1987. Groundwater and Wells. Saint Paul, MN: Johnson Division.
-
17.
Stoler J, Tutu RA, Ahmed H, Frimpong LA, Bello M, 2014. Sachet water quality and brand reputation in two low-income urban communities in Greater Accra, Ghana. Am J Trop Med Hyg 90: 272–278.
-
18.
Nwankwoala HO, Walter IO, 2012. Assessment of groundwater quality in shallow coastal aquifers of Okrika Island, Eastern Niger Delta, Nigeria. Ife J Sci 14: 297–304.
-
19.
Danert K, Adelike D, Gesti Canuto J, 2014. Manually Drilled Boreholes: Providing Water in Nigeria's Megacity of Lagos and Beyond. St. Gallen, Switzerland: Skat Foundation, UNICEF, and the Rural Water Supply Network.
-
20.
Shair and Partners, 2012. Port Harcourt Water Supply Project: Investment Plan Brief, Packages 1–5. Port Harcourt, Nigeria: Rivers State Ministry of Water Resources and Rural Development.
-
21.
World Health Organization, 1997. Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality: Volume 3: Surveillance and Control of Community Supplies, 2nd edition. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.
-
22.
Hartler T, Rollins L, 2008. Watersheds, Groundwater and Drinking Water: A Practical Guide. Davis, CA: University of California Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources.
-
23.
Stoler J, Fink G, Weeks JR, Otoo RA, Ampofo JA, Hill AG, 2012. When urban taps run dry: sachet water consumption and health effects in low income neighborhoods of Accra, Ghana. Health Place 18: 250–262.
-
24.
Uko ED, Tamunobereton-Ari I, 2013. Variability of climatic parameters in Port Harcourt, Nigeria. J Emerg Trends Eng Appl Sci 4: 727–730.
-
25.
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, 2008. Toxicological Profile for Aluminum. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
-
26.
Asia IO, Jegede SI, Jegede DA, Ize-Iyamu OK, Akpasubi EB, 2007. The effects of petroleum exploration and production operations on the heavy metals contents of soil and groundwater in the Niger Delta. Int J Phys Sci 2: 271–275.
-
27.
World Health Organization, 2011. Drinking Water Guidelines, 4th edition. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.
-
28.
Mushi D, Byamukama D, Kirschner AKT, Mach RL, Brunner K, Farnleitner AH, 2012. Sanitary inspection of wells using risk-of-contamination scoring indicates a high predictive ability for bacterial faecal pollution in the peri-urban tropical lowlands of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. J Water Health 10: 236.
-
29.
Patrick JM, Murcott S, Punsalan J, 2011. Coupling microbiological testing and sanitary surveys in drinking water quality programs: results from Capiz Province, Philippines. J Water Sanit Hyg Dev 1: 124.
| Past two years | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 128 | 128 | 30 |
| Full Text Views | 768 | 290 | 1 |
| PDF Downloads | 417 | 80 | 0 |