Payne D, 1987. Spread of chloroquine resistance in Plasmodium falciparum. Parasitol Today 3: 241–246.
White NJ, 2004. Antimalarial drug resistance. J Clin Invest 113: 1084–1092.
Mens PF, Sawa P, van Amsterdam SM, Versteeg I, Omar SA, Schallig HD, Kager PA, 2008. A randomized trial to monitor the efficacy and effectiveness by QT-NASBA of artemether-lumefantrine versus dihydroartemisinin-piperaquine for treatment and transmission control of uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria in western Kenya. Malar J 7: 237.
WHO, 2008. World Malaria Report 2008. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.
Dorsey G, Staedke S, Clark TD, Njama-Meya D, Nzarubara B, Maiteki-Sebuguzi C, Dokomajilar C, Kamya MR, Rosenthal PJ, 2007. Combination therapy for uncomplicated falciparum malaria in Ugandan children: a randomized trial. JAMA 297: 2210–2219.
Adjuik M, Babiker A, Garner P, Olliaro P, Taylor W, White N; International Artemisinin Study Group, 2004. Artesunate combinations for treatment of malaria: meta-analysis. Lancet 363: 9–17.
Ashley EA, Stepniewska K, Lindegardh N, Annerberg A, Kham A, Brockman A, Singhasivanon P, White NJ, Nosten F, 2007. How much fat is necessary to optimize lumefantrine oral bioavailability? Trop Med Int Health 12: 195–200.
Bousema JT, Schneider P, Gouagna LC, Drakeley CJ, Tostmann A, Houben R, Githure JI, Ord R, Sutherland CJ, Omar SA, Sauerwein RW, 2006. Moderate effect of artemisinin-based combination therapy on transmission of Plasmodium falciparum. J Infect Dis 193: 1151–1159.
WHO, 2005. The World Malaria Report. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.
Dondorp AM, Nosten F, Yi P, Das D, Phyo AP, Tarning J, Lwin KM, Ariey F, Hanpithakpong W, Lee SJ, Ringwald P, Silamut K, Imwong M, Chotivanich K, Lim P, Herdman T, An SS, Yeung S, Singhasivanon P, Day NP, Lindegardh N, Socheat D, White NJ, 2009. Artemisinin resistance in Plasmodium falciparum malaria. N Engl J Med 361: 455–467.
Vestergaard LS, Ringwald P, 2007. Responding to the challenge of antimalarial drug resistance by routine monitoring to update national malaria treatment policies. Am J Trop Med Hyg 77: 153–159.
Wilson PE, Alker AP, Meshnick SR, 2005. Real-time PCR methods for monitoring antimalarial drug resistance. Trends Parasitol 21: 278–283.
Sibley CH, Ringwald P, 2006. A database of antimalarial drug resistance. Malar J 5: 48.
Thomas SM, Ndir O, Dieng T, Mboup S, Wypij D, Maguire JH, Wirth DF, 2002. In vitro chloroquine susceptibility and PCR analysis of pfcrt and pfmdr1 polymorphisms in Plasmodium falciparum isolates from Senegal. Am J Trop Med Hyg 66: 474–480.
Trape JF, Lefebvre-Zante E, Legros F, Ndiaye G, Bouganali H, Druilhe P, Salem G, 1992. Vector density gradients and the epidemiology of urban malaria in Dakar, Senegal. Am J Trop Med Hyg 47: 181–189.
Sogoba N, Doumbia S, Vounatsou P, Bagayoko MM, Dolo G, Traore SF, Maiga HM, Toure YT, Smith T, 2007. Malaria transmission dynamics in Niono, Mali: the effect of the irrigation systems. Acta Trop 101: 232–240.
Bogh C, Lindsay SW, Clarke SE, Dean A, Jawara M, Pinder M, Thomas CJ, 2007. High spatial resolution mapping of malaria transmission risk in the Gambia, west Africa, using LANDSAT TM satellite imagery. Am J Trop Med Hyg 76: 875–881.
Mwesigwa J, Okebe J, Affara M, Di Tanna GL, Nwakanma D, Janha O, Opondo K, Grietens KP, Achan J, D'Alessandro U, 2015. On-going malaria transmission in The Gambia despite high coverage of control interventions: a nationwide cross-sectional survey. Malar J 14: 314.
Howie SR, 2011. Blood sample volumes in child health research: review of safe limits. Bull World Health Organ 89: 46–53.
WHO, 2009. Malaria Microscopy Quality Assurance Manual—Version 1. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.
Daniels R, Ndiaye D, Wall M, McKinney J, Sene PD, Sabeti PC, Volkman SK, Mboup S, Wirth DF, 2012. Rapid, field-deployable method for genotyping and discovery of single-nucleotide polymorphisms associated with drug resistance in Plasmodium falciparum. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 56: 2976–2986.
Daniels R, Chang HH, Sene PD, Park DC, Neafsey DE, Schaffner SF, Hamilton EJ, Lukens AK, Van Tyne D, Mboup S, Sabeti PC, Ndiaye D, Wirth DF, Hartl DL, Volkman SK, 2013. Genetic surveillance detects both clonal and epidemic transmission of malaria following enhanced intervention in Senegal. PLoS One 8: e60780.
Daniels R, Volkman SK, Milner DA, Mahesh N, Neafsey DE, Park DJ, Rosen D, Angelino E, Sabeti PC, Wirth DF, Wiegand RC, 2008. A general SNP-based molecular barcode for Plasmodium falciparum identification and tracking. Malar J 7: 223.
Talundzic E, Okoth SA, Congpuong K, Plucinski MM, Morton L, Goldman IF, Kachur PS, Wongsrichanalai C, Satimai W, Barnwell JW, Udhayakumar V, 2015. Selection and spread of artemisinin-resistant alleles in Thailand prior to the global artemisinin resistance containment campaign. PLoS Pathog 11: e1004789.
World Health Organization, 2009. Methods for Surveillance of Antimalarial Drug Efficacy. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO.
Duraisingh MT, Jones P, Sambou I, von Seidlein L, Pinder M, Warhurst DC, 2000. The tyrosine-86 allele of the pfmdr1 gene of Plasmodium falciparum is associated with increased sensitivity to the anti-malarials mefloquine and artemisinin. Mol Biochem Parasitol 108: 13–23.
Duraisingh MT, Roper C, Walliker D, Warhurst DC, 2000. Increased sensitivity to the antimalarials mefloquine and artemisinin is conferred by mutations in the pfmdr1 gene of Plasmodium falciparum. Mol Microbiol 36: 955–961.
Reed MB, Saliba KJ, Caruana SR, Kirk K, Cowman AF, 2000. Pgh1 modulates sensitivity and resistance to multiple antimalarials in Plasmodium falciparum. Nature 403: 906–909.
Mwai L, Kiara SM, Abdirahman A, Pole L, Rippert A, Diriye A, Bull P, Marsh K, Borrmann S, Nzila A, 2009. In vitro activities of piperaquine, lumefantrine, and dihydroartemisinin in Kenyan Plasmodium falciparum isolates and polymorphisms in pfcrt and pfmdr1. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 53: 5069–5073.
Tumwebaze P, Conrad MD, Walakira A, LeClair N, Byaruhanga O, Nakazibwe C, Kozak B, Bloome J, Okiring J, Kakuru A, Bigira V, Kapisi J, Legac J, Gut J, Cooper RA, Kamya MR, Havlir DV, Dorsey G, Greenhouse B, Nsobya SL, Rosenthal PJ, 2015. Impact of antimalarial treatment and chemoprevention on the drug sensitivity of malaria parasites isolated from Ugandan children. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 59: 3018–3030.
Pickard AL, Wongsrichanalai C, Purfield A, Kamwendo D, Emery K, Zalewski C, Kawamoto F, Miller RS, Meshnick SR, 2003. Resistance to antimalarials in southeast Asia and genetic polymorphisms in pfmdr1. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 47: 2418–2423.
Veiga MI, Ferreira PE, Jornhagen L, Malmberg M, Kone A, Schmidt BA, Petzold M, Bjorkman A, Nosten F, Gil JP, 2011. Novel polymorphisms in Plasmodium falciparum ABC transporter genes are associated with major ACT antimalarial drug resistance. PLoS One 6: e20212.
Noedl H, Se Y, Schaecher K, Smith BL, Socheat D, Fukuda MM; Artemisinin Resistance in Cambodia 1 (ARC1) Study Consortium, 2008. Evidence of artemisinin-resistant malaria in western Cambodia. N Engl J Med 359: 2619–2620.
Phyo AP, Nkhoma S, Stepniewska K, Ashley EA, Nair S, McGready R, ler Moo C, Al-Saai S, Dondorp AM, Lwin KM, Singhasivanon P, Day NP, White NJ, Anderson TJ, Nosten F, 2012. Emergence of artemisinin-resistant malaria on the western border of Thailand: a longitudinal study. Lancet 379: 1960–1966.
Ashley EA, Dhorda M, Fairhurst RM, Amaratunga C, Lim P, Suon S, Sreng S, Anderson JM, Mao S, Sam B, Sopha C, Chuor CM, Nguon C, Sovannaroth S, Pukrittayakamee S, Jittamala P, Chotivanich K, Chutasmit K, Suchatsoonthorn C, Runcharoen R, Hien TT, Thuy-Nhien NT, Thanh NV, Phu NH, Htut Y, Han KT, Aye KH, Mokuolu OA, Olaosebikan RR, Folaranmi OO, Mayxay M, Khanthavong M, Hongvanthong B, Newton PN, Onyamboko MA, Fanello CI, Tshefu AK, Mishra N, Valecha N, Phyo AP, Nosten F, Yi P, Tripura R, Borrmann S, Bashraheil M, Peshu J, Faiz MA, Ghose A, Hossain MA, Samad R, Rahman MR, Hasan MM, Islam A, Miotto O, Amato R, MacInnis B, Stalker J, Kwiatkowski DP, Bozdech Z, Jeeyapant A, Cheah PY, Sakulthaew T, Chalk J, Intharabut B, Silamut K, Lee SJ, Vihokhern B, Kunasol C, Imwong M, Tarning J, Taylor WJ, Yeung S, Woodrow CJ, Flegg JA, Das D, Smith J, Venkatesan M, Plowe CV, Stepniewska K, Guerin PJ, Dondorp AM, Day NP, White NJ; Tracking Resistance to Artemisinin Collaboration (TRAC), 2014. Spread of artemisinin resistance in Plasmodium falciparum malaria. N Engl J Med 371: 411–423.
Faye B, Ndiaye JL, Ndiaye D, Dieng Y, Faye O, Gaye O, 2007. Efficacy and tolerability of four antimalarial combinations in the treatment of uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria in Senegal. Malar J 6: 80.
Ndiaye JL, Faye B, Gueye A, Tine R, Ndiaye D, Tchania C, Ndiaye I, Barry A, Cisse B, Lameyre V, Gaye O, 2011. Repeated treatment of recurrent uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria in Senegal with fixed-dose artesunate plus amodiaquine versus fixed-dose artemether plus lumefantrine: a randomized, open-label trial. Malar J 10: 237.
Sagara I, Fofana B, Gaudart J, Sidibe B, Togo A, Toure S, Sanogo K, Dembele D, Dicko A, Giorgi R, Doumbo OK, Djimde AA, 2012. Repeated artemisinin-based combination therapies in a malaria hyperendemic area of Mali: efficacy, safety, and public health impact. Am J Trop Med Hyg 87: 50–56.
Zongo I, Dorsey G, Rouamba N, Dokomajilar C, Sere Y, Rosenthal PJ, Ouedraogo JB, 2007. Randomized comparison of amodiaquine plus sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine, artemether-lumefantrine, and dihydroartemisinin-piperaquine for the treatment of uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria in Burkina Faso. Clin Infect Dis 45: 1453–1461.
Toure OA, Kouame MG, Didier YJ, Berenger AA, Djerea K, Genevieve GO, Penali LK, 2011. Artesunate/mefloquine paediatric formulation vs. artemether/lumefantrine for the treatment of uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum in Anonkoua koute, Cote d'Ivoire. Trop Med Int Health 16: 290–297.
Dorkenoo MA, Barrette A, Agbo YM, Bogreau H, Kutoati S, Sodahlon YK, Morgah K, 2012. Surveillance of the efficacy of artemether-lumefantrine and artesunate-amodiaquine for the treatment of uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum among children under five in Togo, 2005–2009. Malar J 11: 338.
Dunyo S, Sirugo G, Sesay S, Bisseye C, Njie F, Adiamoh M, Nwakanma D, Diatta M, Janha R, Sisay Joof F, Temple B, Snell P, Conway D, Walton R, Cheung YB, Milligan P, 2011. Randomized trial of safety and effectiveness of chlorproguanil-dapsone and lumefantrine-artemether for uncomplicated malaria in children in The Gambia. PLoS One 6: e17371.
Getnet G, Fola AA, Alemu A, Getie S, Fuehrer HP, Noedl H, 2015. Therapeutic efficacy of artemether-lumefantrine for the treatment of uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria in Enfranze, north-west Ethiopia. Malar J 14: 258.
Niang M, Marrama L, Ekala MT, Alioune G, Tall A, Ndiaye JL, Sarr D, Dangou JM, Lehesran JY, Bouchier C, Mercereau-Puijalon O, Jambou R, 2008. Accumulation of CVIET Pfcrt allele of Plasmodium falciparum in placenta of pregnant women living in an urban area of Dakar, Senegal. J Antimicrob Chemother 62: 921–928.
Ndiaye M, Faye B, Tine R, Ndiaye JL, Lo A, Abiola A, Dieng Y, Ndiaye D, Hallett R, Alifrangis M, Gaye O, 2012. Assessment of the molecular marker of Plasmodium falciparum chloroquine resistance (Pfcrt) in Senegal after several years of chloroquine withdrawal. Am J Trop Med Hyg 87: 640–645.
Ly O, Gueye PE, Deme AB, Dieng T, Badiane AS, Ahouidi AD, Diallo M, Bei AK, Wirth DF, Mboup S, Sarr O, 2012. Evolution of the pfcrt T76 and pfmdr1 Y86 markers and chloroquine susceptibility 8 years after cessation of chloroquine use in Pikine, Senegal. Parasitol Res 111: 1541–1546.
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In 2006, artemether–lumefantrine (AL) became the first-line treatment of uncomplicated malaria in Senegal, Mali, and the Gambia. To monitor its efficacy, between August 2011 and November 2014, children with uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria were treated with AL and followed up for 42 days. A total of 463 subjects were enrolled in three sites (246 in Senegal, 97 in Mali, and 120 in Gambia). No early treatment failure was observed and malaria infection cleared in all patients by day 3. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-adjusted adequate clinical and parasitological response (ACPR) was 100% in Mali, and the Gambia, and 98.8% in Senegal. However, without PCR adjustment, ACPR was 89.4% overall; 91.5% in Mali, 98.8% in Senegal, and 64.3% in the Gambia (the lower value in the Gambia attributed to poor compliance of the full antimalarial course). However, pfmdr1 mutations were prevalent in Senegal and a decrease in parasite sensitivity to artesunate and lumefantrine (as measured by ex vivo drug assay) was observed at all sites. Recrudescent parasites did not show Kelch 13 (K13) mutations and AL remains highly efficacious in these west African sites.
Financial support: The work was supported by the NIH/ICEMR, International Centre of Excellence for Malaria Research, west Africa (U19AI089696).
Authors' addresses: Baba Dieye, Yaye D. Ndiaye, Jules F. Gomis, Mouhamadou Ndiaye, Aminata Mbaye, Ngayo Sy, Babacar Mbengue, Awa B. Deme, Ambroise D. Ahouidi, Tandakha Dieye, Jean L. Ndiaye, and Daouda Ndiaye, Université Cheikh Anta Diop, BP 5005, Dakar, Fann, Sénégal, E-mails: dieyebaba2004@yahoo.fr, ydndiaye@gmail.com, jules.gomis@gmail.com, mouhamadou.ndiaye@ucad.edu.sn, natou5002@yahoo.fr, ngayosy50@hotmail.com, b.mbengue@yahoo.fr, deme.awa@gmail.com, aahouidi@gmail.com, tandakha.dieye@ucad.edu.sn, jeanloab.ndiaye@ucad.edu.sn, and dndiaye@hsph.harvard.edu. Muna Affara, Fatou Joof, Ahmad Abdullahi, Abubakar Ismaela, Alfred Amambua Ngwa, Umberto D'Alessandro, and Davis Nwakanma, Medical Research Council Unit, Atlantic Boulevard, Fajara, Banjul, The Gambia, E-mails: maffara@mrc.gm, fajoof@mrc.gm, aahmad@mrc.gm, iabubakar@mrc.gm, angwa@mrc.gm, udalessandro@mrc.gm, and dnwakanma@mrc.gm. Lassana Sangre, Mouhamadou Diakite, Seydou Doumbia, Ayouba Diarra, Mamadou Coulibaly, and Ousmane Koita, Université de Bamako, BP 1805, Bamako, Mali, E-mails: lansana.sangare@gmail.com, mdiakite@icermali.org, sdoumbi@gmail.com, adiarra@icemrwaf.org, doudou@icermali.org, and okoita@icermali.org. Clint Welty, Jeffrey Shaffer, and Donald J. Krogstad, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA, E-mails: cwelty@icemrwaf.org, jshaffer@tulane.edu, and donkrogstad@gmail.com. Rachel Daniels, Sarah K. Volkman, and Dyann F. Wirth, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, E-mails: rdaniels@broadinstitute.org, svolkman@hsph.harvard.edu, and dfwirth@hsph.harvard.edu.
Payne D, 1987. Spread of chloroquine resistance in Plasmodium falciparum. Parasitol Today 3: 241–246.
White NJ, 2004. Antimalarial drug resistance. J Clin Invest 113: 1084–1092.
Mens PF, Sawa P, van Amsterdam SM, Versteeg I, Omar SA, Schallig HD, Kager PA, 2008. A randomized trial to monitor the efficacy and effectiveness by QT-NASBA of artemether-lumefantrine versus dihydroartemisinin-piperaquine for treatment and transmission control of uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria in western Kenya. Malar J 7: 237.
WHO, 2008. World Malaria Report 2008. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.
Dorsey G, Staedke S, Clark TD, Njama-Meya D, Nzarubara B, Maiteki-Sebuguzi C, Dokomajilar C, Kamya MR, Rosenthal PJ, 2007. Combination therapy for uncomplicated falciparum malaria in Ugandan children: a randomized trial. JAMA 297: 2210–2219.
Adjuik M, Babiker A, Garner P, Olliaro P, Taylor W, White N; International Artemisinin Study Group, 2004. Artesunate combinations for treatment of malaria: meta-analysis. Lancet 363: 9–17.
Ashley EA, Stepniewska K, Lindegardh N, Annerberg A, Kham A, Brockman A, Singhasivanon P, White NJ, Nosten F, 2007. How much fat is necessary to optimize lumefantrine oral bioavailability? Trop Med Int Health 12: 195–200.
Bousema JT, Schneider P, Gouagna LC, Drakeley CJ, Tostmann A, Houben R, Githure JI, Ord R, Sutherland CJ, Omar SA, Sauerwein RW, 2006. Moderate effect of artemisinin-based combination therapy on transmission of Plasmodium falciparum. J Infect Dis 193: 1151–1159.
WHO, 2005. The World Malaria Report. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.
Dondorp AM, Nosten F, Yi P, Das D, Phyo AP, Tarning J, Lwin KM, Ariey F, Hanpithakpong W, Lee SJ, Ringwald P, Silamut K, Imwong M, Chotivanich K, Lim P, Herdman T, An SS, Yeung S, Singhasivanon P, Day NP, Lindegardh N, Socheat D, White NJ, 2009. Artemisinin resistance in Plasmodium falciparum malaria. N Engl J Med 361: 455–467.
Vestergaard LS, Ringwald P, 2007. Responding to the challenge of antimalarial drug resistance by routine monitoring to update national malaria treatment policies. Am J Trop Med Hyg 77: 153–159.
Wilson PE, Alker AP, Meshnick SR, 2005. Real-time PCR methods for monitoring antimalarial drug resistance. Trends Parasitol 21: 278–283.
Sibley CH, Ringwald P, 2006. A database of antimalarial drug resistance. Malar J 5: 48.
Thomas SM, Ndir O, Dieng T, Mboup S, Wypij D, Maguire JH, Wirth DF, 2002. In vitro chloroquine susceptibility and PCR analysis of pfcrt and pfmdr1 polymorphisms in Plasmodium falciparum isolates from Senegal. Am J Trop Med Hyg 66: 474–480.
Trape JF, Lefebvre-Zante E, Legros F, Ndiaye G, Bouganali H, Druilhe P, Salem G, 1992. Vector density gradients and the epidemiology of urban malaria in Dakar, Senegal. Am J Trop Med Hyg 47: 181–189.
Sogoba N, Doumbia S, Vounatsou P, Bagayoko MM, Dolo G, Traore SF, Maiga HM, Toure YT, Smith T, 2007. Malaria transmission dynamics in Niono, Mali: the effect of the irrigation systems. Acta Trop 101: 232–240.
Bogh C, Lindsay SW, Clarke SE, Dean A, Jawara M, Pinder M, Thomas CJ, 2007. High spatial resolution mapping of malaria transmission risk in the Gambia, west Africa, using LANDSAT TM satellite imagery. Am J Trop Med Hyg 76: 875–881.
Mwesigwa J, Okebe J, Affara M, Di Tanna GL, Nwakanma D, Janha O, Opondo K, Grietens KP, Achan J, D'Alessandro U, 2015. On-going malaria transmission in The Gambia despite high coverage of control interventions: a nationwide cross-sectional survey. Malar J 14: 314.
Howie SR, 2011. Blood sample volumes in child health research: review of safe limits. Bull World Health Organ 89: 46–53.
WHO, 2009. Malaria Microscopy Quality Assurance Manual—Version 1. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.
Daniels R, Ndiaye D, Wall M, McKinney J, Sene PD, Sabeti PC, Volkman SK, Mboup S, Wirth DF, 2012. Rapid, field-deployable method for genotyping and discovery of single-nucleotide polymorphisms associated with drug resistance in Plasmodium falciparum. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 56: 2976–2986.
Daniels R, Chang HH, Sene PD, Park DC, Neafsey DE, Schaffner SF, Hamilton EJ, Lukens AK, Van Tyne D, Mboup S, Sabeti PC, Ndiaye D, Wirth DF, Hartl DL, Volkman SK, 2013. Genetic surveillance detects both clonal and epidemic transmission of malaria following enhanced intervention in Senegal. PLoS One 8: e60780.
Daniels R, Volkman SK, Milner DA, Mahesh N, Neafsey DE, Park DJ, Rosen D, Angelino E, Sabeti PC, Wirth DF, Wiegand RC, 2008. A general SNP-based molecular barcode for Plasmodium falciparum identification and tracking. Malar J 7: 223.
Talundzic E, Okoth SA, Congpuong K, Plucinski MM, Morton L, Goldman IF, Kachur PS, Wongsrichanalai C, Satimai W, Barnwell JW, Udhayakumar V, 2015. Selection and spread of artemisinin-resistant alleles in Thailand prior to the global artemisinin resistance containment campaign. PLoS Pathog 11: e1004789.
World Health Organization, 2009. Methods for Surveillance of Antimalarial Drug Efficacy. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO.
Duraisingh MT, Jones P, Sambou I, von Seidlein L, Pinder M, Warhurst DC, 2000. The tyrosine-86 allele of the pfmdr1 gene of Plasmodium falciparum is associated with increased sensitivity to the anti-malarials mefloquine and artemisinin. Mol Biochem Parasitol 108: 13–23.
Duraisingh MT, Roper C, Walliker D, Warhurst DC, 2000. Increased sensitivity to the antimalarials mefloquine and artemisinin is conferred by mutations in the pfmdr1 gene of Plasmodium falciparum. Mol Microbiol 36: 955–961.
Reed MB, Saliba KJ, Caruana SR, Kirk K, Cowman AF, 2000. Pgh1 modulates sensitivity and resistance to multiple antimalarials in Plasmodium falciparum. Nature 403: 906–909.
Mwai L, Kiara SM, Abdirahman A, Pole L, Rippert A, Diriye A, Bull P, Marsh K, Borrmann S, Nzila A, 2009. In vitro activities of piperaquine, lumefantrine, and dihydroartemisinin in Kenyan Plasmodium falciparum isolates and polymorphisms in pfcrt and pfmdr1. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 53: 5069–5073.
Tumwebaze P, Conrad MD, Walakira A, LeClair N, Byaruhanga O, Nakazibwe C, Kozak B, Bloome J, Okiring J, Kakuru A, Bigira V, Kapisi J, Legac J, Gut J, Cooper RA, Kamya MR, Havlir DV, Dorsey G, Greenhouse B, Nsobya SL, Rosenthal PJ, 2015. Impact of antimalarial treatment and chemoprevention on the drug sensitivity of malaria parasites isolated from Ugandan children. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 59: 3018–3030.
Pickard AL, Wongsrichanalai C, Purfield A, Kamwendo D, Emery K, Zalewski C, Kawamoto F, Miller RS, Meshnick SR, 2003. Resistance to antimalarials in southeast Asia and genetic polymorphisms in pfmdr1. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 47: 2418–2423.
Veiga MI, Ferreira PE, Jornhagen L, Malmberg M, Kone A, Schmidt BA, Petzold M, Bjorkman A, Nosten F, Gil JP, 2011. Novel polymorphisms in Plasmodium falciparum ABC transporter genes are associated with major ACT antimalarial drug resistance. PLoS One 6: e20212.
Noedl H, Se Y, Schaecher K, Smith BL, Socheat D, Fukuda MM; Artemisinin Resistance in Cambodia 1 (ARC1) Study Consortium, 2008. Evidence of artemisinin-resistant malaria in western Cambodia. N Engl J Med 359: 2619–2620.
Phyo AP, Nkhoma S, Stepniewska K, Ashley EA, Nair S, McGready R, ler Moo C, Al-Saai S, Dondorp AM, Lwin KM, Singhasivanon P, Day NP, White NJ, Anderson TJ, Nosten F, 2012. Emergence of artemisinin-resistant malaria on the western border of Thailand: a longitudinal study. Lancet 379: 1960–1966.
Ashley EA, Dhorda M, Fairhurst RM, Amaratunga C, Lim P, Suon S, Sreng S, Anderson JM, Mao S, Sam B, Sopha C, Chuor CM, Nguon C, Sovannaroth S, Pukrittayakamee S, Jittamala P, Chotivanich K, Chutasmit K, Suchatsoonthorn C, Runcharoen R, Hien TT, Thuy-Nhien NT, Thanh NV, Phu NH, Htut Y, Han KT, Aye KH, Mokuolu OA, Olaosebikan RR, Folaranmi OO, Mayxay M, Khanthavong M, Hongvanthong B, Newton PN, Onyamboko MA, Fanello CI, Tshefu AK, Mishra N, Valecha N, Phyo AP, Nosten F, Yi P, Tripura R, Borrmann S, Bashraheil M, Peshu J, Faiz MA, Ghose A, Hossain MA, Samad R, Rahman MR, Hasan MM, Islam A, Miotto O, Amato R, MacInnis B, Stalker J, Kwiatkowski DP, Bozdech Z, Jeeyapant A, Cheah PY, Sakulthaew T, Chalk J, Intharabut B, Silamut K, Lee SJ, Vihokhern B, Kunasol C, Imwong M, Tarning J, Taylor WJ, Yeung S, Woodrow CJ, Flegg JA, Das D, Smith J, Venkatesan M, Plowe CV, Stepniewska K, Guerin PJ, Dondorp AM, Day NP, White NJ; Tracking Resistance to Artemisinin Collaboration (TRAC), 2014. Spread of artemisinin resistance in Plasmodium falciparum malaria. N Engl J Med 371: 411–423.
Faye B, Ndiaye JL, Ndiaye D, Dieng Y, Faye O, Gaye O, 2007. Efficacy and tolerability of four antimalarial combinations in the treatment of uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria in Senegal. Malar J 6: 80.
Ndiaye JL, Faye B, Gueye A, Tine R, Ndiaye D, Tchania C, Ndiaye I, Barry A, Cisse B, Lameyre V, Gaye O, 2011. Repeated treatment of recurrent uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria in Senegal with fixed-dose artesunate plus amodiaquine versus fixed-dose artemether plus lumefantrine: a randomized, open-label trial. Malar J 10: 237.
Sagara I, Fofana B, Gaudart J, Sidibe B, Togo A, Toure S, Sanogo K, Dembele D, Dicko A, Giorgi R, Doumbo OK, Djimde AA, 2012. Repeated artemisinin-based combination therapies in a malaria hyperendemic area of Mali: efficacy, safety, and public health impact. Am J Trop Med Hyg 87: 50–56.
Zongo I, Dorsey G, Rouamba N, Dokomajilar C, Sere Y, Rosenthal PJ, Ouedraogo JB, 2007. Randomized comparison of amodiaquine plus sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine, artemether-lumefantrine, and dihydroartemisinin-piperaquine for the treatment of uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria in Burkina Faso. Clin Infect Dis 45: 1453–1461.
Toure OA, Kouame MG, Didier YJ, Berenger AA, Djerea K, Genevieve GO, Penali LK, 2011. Artesunate/mefloquine paediatric formulation vs. artemether/lumefantrine for the treatment of uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum in Anonkoua koute, Cote d'Ivoire. Trop Med Int Health 16: 290–297.
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