Author:
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1.
Hogerzeil HV, 1995. Promoting rational prescribing: an international perspective. Br J Clin Pharmacol 39: 1–6.
-
2.
Holmes A, Moore LSP, Sundsfjord A, Steinbakk M, Regmi S, Karkey A, Guerin P, Piddock LJV, 2016. Understanding the mechanisms and drivers of antimicrobial resistance. Lancet 387: 176–187.
-
3.
Aminov R, 2010. A brief history of the antibiotic era: lessons learned and challenges for the future. Front Microbiol 1: 134.
-
4.
Lamberti LM, Fischer Walker CL, Black RE, 2012. Correction: systematic review of diarrhea duration and severity in children and adults in low- and middle-income countries. BMC Public Health 12: 832.
-
5.
Fischer Walker CL, Black RE, 2010. Diarrhoea morbidity and mortality in older children, adolescents, and adults. Epidemiol Infect 138: 1215–1226.
-
6.
WHO, 2004. The World Medicines Situation 2004. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO.
-
7.
Pathak A, Mahadik K, Dhaneria SP, Sharma A, Eriksson B, Lundborg CS, 2011. Antibiotic prescribing in outpatients: hospital and seasonal variations in Ujjain, India. Scand J Infect Dis 43: 479–488.
-
8.
Pathak D, Pathak A, Marrone G, Diwan V, Lundborg CS, 2011. Adherence to treatment guidelines for acute diarrhoea in children up to 12 years in Ujjain, India—a cross-sectional prescription analysis. BMC Infect Dis 11: 32.
-
9.
Hafeez A, Kiani AG, ud Din S, Muhammad W, Butt K, Shah Z, Mirza Z, 2004. Prescription and dispensing practices in public sector health facilities in Pakistan: survey report. J Pak Med Assoc 54: 187–191.
-
10.
Nichter M, Vuckovic N, 1994. Agenda for an anthropology of pharmaceutical practice. Soc Sci Med 39: 1509–1525.
-
11.
Nichter M, Nichter M, 1996. Anthropology and International Health: Asian Case Studies. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Gordon and Breach Publishers.
-
12.
Burtscher D, Al-Kourdi Y, Mahama G, van Overloop C, Leto C, Bajis S, Nasim M, Van den Bergh R, Au S, Sattar A, 2015. “They Eat It Like Sweets.” Perceptions of Antibiotics and Antibiotic-Use of Patients, Prescribers and Pharmacists in a District Hospital in Kabul, Afghanistan. Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF) Scientific Day 2015. Available at: http://f1000research.com/posters/1000006.
-
13.
Greenhalgh T, 1987. Drug prescription and self-medication in India: an exploratory survey. Soc Sci Med 25: 307–318.
-
14.
Kamat VR, Nichter M, 1998. Pharmacies, self-medication and pharmaceutical marketing in Bombay, India. Soc Sci Med 47: 779–794.
-
15.
Saradamma RD, Higginbotham N, Nichter M, 2000. Social factors influencing the acquisition of antibiotics without prescription in Kerala State, south India. Soc Sci Med 50: 891–903.
-
16.
Chandran A, Hatha AA, Varghese S, Sheeja KM, 2008. Prevalence of multiple drug resistant Escherichia coli serotypes in a tropical estuary, India. Microbes Environ 23: 153–158.
-
17.
Das S, Choudhry S, Saha R, Ramachandran VG, Kaur K, Sarkar BL, 2011. Emergence of multiple drug resistance Vibrio cholerae O1 in East Delhi. J Infect Dev Ctries 5: 294–298.
-
18.
Raju B, Ballal M, 2009. Multidrug resistant enteroaggregative Escherichia coli diarrhoea in rural southern Indian population. Scand J Infect Dis 41: 105–108.
-
19.
Zafar A, Hasan R, Nizami SQ, von Seidlein L, Soofi S, Ahsan T, Chandio S, Habib A, Bhutto N, Siddiqui FJ, Rizvi A, Clemens JD, Bhutta ZA, 2009. Frequency of isolation of various subtypes and antimicrobial resistance of Shigella from urban slums of Karachi, Pakistan. Int J Infect Dis 13: 668–672.
-
20.
Dellit TH, Owens RC, McGowan JE Jr, Gerding DN, Weinstein RA, Burke JP, Huskins WC, Paterson DL, Fishman NO, Carpenter CF, Brennan PJ, Billeter M, Hooton TM, 2007. Infectious Diseases Society of America and the Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America guidelines for developing an institutional program to enhance antimicrobial stewardship. Clin Infect Dis 44: 159–177.
-
21.
WHO, 2001. Interventions and Strategies to Improve the Use of Antimicrobials in Developing Countries. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO.
-
22.
Luby S, Agboatwalla M, Raza A, Sobel J, Mintz E, Baier K, Rahbar M, Qureshi S, Hassan R, Ghouri F, Hoekstra RM, Gangarosa E, 2001. A low-cost intervention for cleaner drinking water in Karachi, Pakistan. Int J Infect Dis 5: 144–150.
-
23.
Guest G, Bunce A, Johnson L, 2006. How many interviews are enough? An experiment with data saturation and variability. Field Methods 18: 59–82.
-
24.
Guest G, MacQueen K, Namey EE, 2012. Applied Thematic Analysis. New York, NY: Sage.
-
25.
Mangione-Smith R, Elliott MN, Stivers T, McDonald L, Heritage J, McGlynn EA, 2004. Racial/ethnic variation in parent expectations for antibiotics: implications for public health campaigns. Pediatrics 113: e385–e394.
-
26.
Arnold SR, Straus SE, 2005. Interventions to improve antibiotic prescribing practices in ambulatory care. Cochrane Database Syst Rev CD003539.
-
27.
Jamison DT, Breman JG, Measham AR, Alleyne G, Claeson M, Evans DB, Jha P, Mills A, Musgrove P, eds., 2006. Disease Control Priorities in Developing Countries, 2nd edition, Vol. 2. New York, NY: Oxford University Press and The World Bank.
-
28.
Hawkings NJ, Wood F, Butler CC, 2007. Public attitudes towards bacterial resistance: a qualitative study. J Antimicrob Chemother 59: 1155–1160.
-
29.
Bandura A, 1977. Self-efficacy: toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychol Rev 84: 191–215.
-
30.
Janz NK, Becker MH, 1984. The health belief model: a decade later. Health Educ Q 11: 1–47.
-
31.
Ajzen I, 1991. The theory of planned behaviour. Organ Behav Hum Decis Process 50: 179–211.
-
32.
Denis M, 1998. Improving compliance with quinine + tetracycline for treatment of malaria: evaluation of health education interventions in Cambodian villages. Bull World Health Organ 76 (Suppl 1): 43–49.
-
33.
Fuangchan A, Dhippayom T, Kongkaew C, 2014. Intervention to promote patients' adherence to antimalarial medication: a systematic review. Am J Trop Med Hyg 90: 11–19.
-
34.
Gradel KO, Dethlefsen C, Ejlertsen T, Schønheyder HC, Nielsen H, 2008. Increased prescription rate of antibiotics prior to non-typhoid Salmonella infections: a one-year nested case-control study. Scand J Infect Dis 40: 635–641.
-
35.
Koningstein M, Simonsen J, Helms M, Hald T, Mølbak K, 2011. Antimicrobial use: a risk factor or a protective factor for acquiring campylobacteriosis? Clin Infect Dis 53: 644–650.
-
36.
Rabbani F, Cheema FH, Talati N, Siddiqui S, Syed S, Bashir S, Zuberi LZ, Shamim A, Mumtaz Q, 2001. Behind the counter: pharmacies and dispensing patterns of pharmacy attendants in Karachi. J Pak Med Assoc 51: 149–153.
-
37.
Bexell A, Lwando E, von Hofsten B, Tembo S, Eriksson B, Diwan VK, 1996. Improving drug use through continuing education: a randomized controlled trial in Zambia. J Clin Epidemiol 49: 355–357.
-
38.
Hadiyono JE, Suryawati S, Danu SS, Sunartono, Santoso B, 1996. Interactional group discussion: results of a controlled trial using a behavioral intervention to reduce the use of injections in public health facilities. Soc Sci Med 42: 1177–1183.
-
39.
Thamlikitkul V, Danchaivijitr S, Kongpattanakul S, Ckokloikaew S, 1998. Impact of an educational program on antibiotic use in a tertiary care hospital in a developing country. J Clin Epidemiol 51: 773–778.
-
40.
Gutiérrez G, Guiscafré H, Bronfman M, Walsh J, Martínez H, Muñoz O, 1994. Changing physician prescribing patterns: evaluation of an educational strategy for acute diarrhea in Mexico City. Med Care 32: 436–446.
-
41.
Mangione-Smith R, Zhou C, Robinson JD, Taylor JA, Elliott MN, Heritage J, 2015. Communication practices and antibiotic use for acute respiratory tract infections in children. Ann Fam Med 13: 221–227.
-
42.
Gonzalez Ochoa E, Armas Perez L, Bravo Gonzalez JR, Cabrales Escobar J, Rosales Corrales R, Abreu Suarez G, 1996. Prescription of antibiotics for mild acute respiratory infections in children. Bull Pan Am Health Organ 30: 106–117.
-
43.
le Grand A, Hogerzeil HV, Haaijer-Ruskamp FM, 1999. Intervention research in rational use of drugs: a review. Health Policy Plan 14: 89–102.
-
44.
Huttner B, Goossens H, Verheij T, Harbarth S, 2010. Characteristics and outcomes of public campaigns aimed at improving the use of antibiotics in outpatients in high-income countries. Lancet Infect Dis 10: 17–31.
-
45.
Zahid AB, Gilani AH, Nanan D, Sheikh AL, White F, 2005. Quality of pharmacies in Pakistan: a cross-sectional survey. Int J Qual Health Care 17: 307–313.
-
46.
Okeke IN, Klugman KP, Bhutta ZA, Duse AG, Jenkins P, O'Brien TF, Pablos-Mendez A, Laxminarayan R, 2005. Antimicrobial resistance in developing countries. Part II: strategies for containment. Lancet Infect Dis 5: 568–580.
-
47.
Bowen A, Hurd J, Hoover C, Khachadourian Y, Traphagen E, Harvey E, Libby T, Ehlers S, Ongpin M, Norton JC, Bicknese A, Kimura A, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 2015. Importation and domestic transmission of Shigella sonnei resistant to ciprofloxacin—United States, May 2014–February 2015. MMWR 64: 318–320.
-
48.
Ruppé E, Armand-Lefèvre L, Estellat C, Consigny PH, El Mniai A, Boussadia Y, Goujon C, Ralaimazava P, Campa P, Girard PM, Wyplosz B, Vittecoq D, Bouchaud O, Le Loup G, Pialoux G, Perrier M, Wieder I, Moussa N, Esposito-Farèse M, Hoffmann I, Coignard B, Lucet JC, Andremont A, Matheron S, 2015. High rate of acquisition but short duration of carriage of multidrug-resistant enterobacteriaceae after travel to the tropics. Clin Infect Dis 61: 593–600.
| Past two years | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 31 | 31 | 7 |
| Full Text Views | 368 | 118 | 0 |
| PDF Downloads | 78 | 18 | 0 |
What Happens When “Germs Don't Get Killed and They Attack Again and Again”: Perceptions of Antimicrobial Resistance in the Context of Diarrheal Disease Treatment Among Laypersons and Health-Care Providers in Karachi, Pakistan
Heather A. Joseph
Heather A. Joseph
Division of Global Migration and Quarantine, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia.
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Mubina Agboatwalla
Mubina Agboatwalla
Health-Oriented Preventive Education, Karachi, Pakistan.
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Jacqueline Hurd
Jacqueline Hurd
Division of Foodborne, Waterborne and Environmental Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia.
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Kara Jacobs-Slifka
Kara Jacobs-Slifka
Division of Foodborne, Waterborne and Environmental Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia.
Epidemic Intelligence Service, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia.
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Epidemic Intelligence Service, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia.
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Adam Pitz
Adam Pitz
Procter and Gamble, Cincinnati, Ohio.
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Anna Bowen
Anna Bowen
Division of Foodborne, Waterborne and Environmental Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia.
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In south Asia, where diarrhea is common and antibiotics are accessible without prescription, antimicrobial resistance is an emerging and serious problem. However, beliefs and behaviors related to antimicrobial resistance are poorly understood. We explored laypersons' and health-care providers' (HCP) awareness and perceptions of antimicrobial resistance in the context of treatment of adult diarrheal disease in Karachi, Pakistan. In-depth, open-ended interviews were conducted with 40 laypersons and 45 HCPs in a lower-middle-class urban neighborhood. Interviews conducted in Urdu were audiotaped, transcribed, translated, and coded using applied thematic analysis. Slightly over half of laypersons and two-thirds of HCPs were aware that antimicrobial medication could lose effectiveness, but misperceptions were common. Laypersons and HCPs often believed that “the body becomes immune” or “bacteria attack more strongly” if medications are taken “improperly.” Another prevalent theme was that causes and effects of antimicrobial resistance are limited to the individual taking the antimicrobial medication and to the specific diarrheal episode. Participants often attributed antimicrobial resistance to patient behaviors; HCP behavior was rarely discussed. Less than half of the HCPs were aware of treatment guidelines. To combat antimicrobial resistance in urban Pakistan, a health systems strategy and community-supported outreach campaigns on appropriate antimicrobial use are needed.
Author Notes
Financial support: The study was funded by Procter and Gamble (Cincinnati, OH).
Disclosure: Adam Pitz is an employee of the Procter and Gamble Company. Anna Bowen has received research and partial salary support from the Procter and Gamble Company through a cooperative research agreement while employed at CDC.
Authors' addresses: Heather A. Joseph, Division of Global Migration and Quarantine, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, E-mail: hjoseph1@cdc.gov. Mubina Agboatwalla, Health-Oriented Preventive Education, Karachi, Pakistan, E-mail: agboat@hope-ngo.com. Jacqueline Hurd, Kara Jacobs-Slifka, and Anna Bowen, Division of Foodborne, Waterborne and Environmental Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, E-mails: xyf2@cdc.gov, ipf8@cdcd.gov, and abowen@cdc.gov. Adam Pitz, Global Microbiology Capability Organization, The Procter and Gamble Company, Mason, OH, E-mail: pitz.am@pg.com.
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1.
Hogerzeil HV, 1995. Promoting rational prescribing: an international perspective. Br J Clin Pharmacol 39: 1–6.
-
2.
Holmes A, Moore LSP, Sundsfjord A, Steinbakk M, Regmi S, Karkey A, Guerin P, Piddock LJV, 2016. Understanding the mechanisms and drivers of antimicrobial resistance. Lancet 387: 176–187.
-
3.
Aminov R, 2010. A brief history of the antibiotic era: lessons learned and challenges for the future. Front Microbiol 1: 134.
-
4.
Lamberti LM, Fischer Walker CL, Black RE, 2012. Correction: systematic review of diarrhea duration and severity in children and adults in low- and middle-income countries. BMC Public Health 12: 832.
-
5.
Fischer Walker CL, Black RE, 2010. Diarrhoea morbidity and mortality in older children, adolescents, and adults. Epidemiol Infect 138: 1215–1226.
-
6.
WHO, 2004. The World Medicines Situation 2004. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO.
-
7.
Pathak A, Mahadik K, Dhaneria SP, Sharma A, Eriksson B, Lundborg CS, 2011. Antibiotic prescribing in outpatients: hospital and seasonal variations in Ujjain, India. Scand J Infect Dis 43: 479–488.
-
8.
Pathak D, Pathak A, Marrone G, Diwan V, Lundborg CS, 2011. Adherence to treatment guidelines for acute diarrhoea in children up to 12 years in Ujjain, India—a cross-sectional prescription analysis. BMC Infect Dis 11: 32.
-
9.
Hafeez A, Kiani AG, ud Din S, Muhammad W, Butt K, Shah Z, Mirza Z, 2004. Prescription and dispensing practices in public sector health facilities in Pakistan: survey report. J Pak Med Assoc 54: 187–191.
-
10.
Nichter M, Vuckovic N, 1994. Agenda for an anthropology of pharmaceutical practice. Soc Sci Med 39: 1509–1525.
-
11.
Nichter M, Nichter M, 1996. Anthropology and International Health: Asian Case Studies. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Gordon and Breach Publishers.
-
12.
Burtscher D, Al-Kourdi Y, Mahama G, van Overloop C, Leto C, Bajis S, Nasim M, Van den Bergh R, Au S, Sattar A, 2015. “They Eat It Like Sweets.” Perceptions of Antibiotics and Antibiotic-Use of Patients, Prescribers and Pharmacists in a District Hospital in Kabul, Afghanistan. Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF) Scientific Day 2015. Available at: http://f1000research.com/posters/1000006.
-
13.
Greenhalgh T, 1987. Drug prescription and self-medication in India: an exploratory survey. Soc Sci Med 25: 307–318.
-
14.
Kamat VR, Nichter M, 1998. Pharmacies, self-medication and pharmaceutical marketing in Bombay, India. Soc Sci Med 47: 779–794.
-
15.
Saradamma RD, Higginbotham N, Nichter M, 2000. Social factors influencing the acquisition of antibiotics without prescription in Kerala State, south India. Soc Sci Med 50: 891–903.
-
16.
Chandran A, Hatha AA, Varghese S, Sheeja KM, 2008. Prevalence of multiple drug resistant Escherichia coli serotypes in a tropical estuary, India. Microbes Environ 23: 153–158.
-
17.
Das S, Choudhry S, Saha R, Ramachandran VG, Kaur K, Sarkar BL, 2011. Emergence of multiple drug resistance Vibrio cholerae O1 in East Delhi. J Infect Dev Ctries 5: 294–298.
-
18.
Raju B, Ballal M, 2009. Multidrug resistant enteroaggregative Escherichia coli diarrhoea in rural southern Indian population. Scand J Infect Dis 41: 105–108.
-
19.
Zafar A, Hasan R, Nizami SQ, von Seidlein L, Soofi S, Ahsan T, Chandio S, Habib A, Bhutto N, Siddiqui FJ, Rizvi A, Clemens JD, Bhutta ZA, 2009. Frequency of isolation of various subtypes and antimicrobial resistance of Shigella from urban slums of Karachi, Pakistan. Int J Infect Dis 13: 668–672.
-
20.
Dellit TH, Owens RC, McGowan JE Jr, Gerding DN, Weinstein RA, Burke JP, Huskins WC, Paterson DL, Fishman NO, Carpenter CF, Brennan PJ, Billeter M, Hooton TM, 2007. Infectious Diseases Society of America and the Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America guidelines for developing an institutional program to enhance antimicrobial stewardship. Clin Infect Dis 44: 159–177.
-
21.
WHO, 2001. Interventions and Strategies to Improve the Use of Antimicrobials in Developing Countries. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO.
-
22.
Luby S, Agboatwalla M, Raza A, Sobel J, Mintz E, Baier K, Rahbar M, Qureshi S, Hassan R, Ghouri F, Hoekstra RM, Gangarosa E, 2001. A low-cost intervention for cleaner drinking water in Karachi, Pakistan. Int J Infect Dis 5: 144–150.
-
23.
Guest G, Bunce A, Johnson L, 2006. How many interviews are enough? An experiment with data saturation and variability. Field Methods 18: 59–82.
-
24.
Guest G, MacQueen K, Namey EE, 2012. Applied Thematic Analysis. New York, NY: Sage.
-
25.
Mangione-Smith R, Elliott MN, Stivers T, McDonald L, Heritage J, McGlynn EA, 2004. Racial/ethnic variation in parent expectations for antibiotics: implications for public health campaigns. Pediatrics 113: e385–e394.
-
26.
Arnold SR, Straus SE, 2005. Interventions to improve antibiotic prescribing practices in ambulatory care. Cochrane Database Syst Rev CD003539.
-
27.
Jamison DT, Breman JG, Measham AR, Alleyne G, Claeson M, Evans DB, Jha P, Mills A, Musgrove P, eds., 2006. Disease Control Priorities in Developing Countries, 2nd edition, Vol. 2. New York, NY: Oxford University Press and The World Bank.
-
28.
Hawkings NJ, Wood F, Butler CC, 2007. Public attitudes towards bacterial resistance: a qualitative study. J Antimicrob Chemother 59: 1155–1160.
-
29.
Bandura A, 1977. Self-efficacy: toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychol Rev 84: 191–215.
-
30.
Janz NK, Becker MH, 1984. The health belief model: a decade later. Health Educ Q 11: 1–47.
-
31.
Ajzen I, 1991. The theory of planned behaviour. Organ Behav Hum Decis Process 50: 179–211.
-
32.
Denis M, 1998. Improving compliance with quinine + tetracycline for treatment of malaria: evaluation of health education interventions in Cambodian villages. Bull World Health Organ 76 (Suppl 1): 43–49.
-
33.
Fuangchan A, Dhippayom T, Kongkaew C, 2014. Intervention to promote patients' adherence to antimalarial medication: a systematic review. Am J Trop Med Hyg 90: 11–19.
-
34.
Gradel KO, Dethlefsen C, Ejlertsen T, Schønheyder HC, Nielsen H, 2008. Increased prescription rate of antibiotics prior to non-typhoid Salmonella infections: a one-year nested case-control study. Scand J Infect Dis 40: 635–641.
-
35.
Koningstein M, Simonsen J, Helms M, Hald T, Mølbak K, 2011. Antimicrobial use: a risk factor or a protective factor for acquiring campylobacteriosis? Clin Infect Dis 53: 644–650.
-
36.
Rabbani F, Cheema FH, Talati N, Siddiqui S, Syed S, Bashir S, Zuberi LZ, Shamim A, Mumtaz Q, 2001. Behind the counter: pharmacies and dispensing patterns of pharmacy attendants in Karachi. J Pak Med Assoc 51: 149–153.
-
37.
Bexell A, Lwando E, von Hofsten B, Tembo S, Eriksson B, Diwan VK, 1996. Improving drug use through continuing education: a randomized controlled trial in Zambia. J Clin Epidemiol 49: 355–357.
-
38.
Hadiyono JE, Suryawati S, Danu SS, Sunartono, Santoso B, 1996. Interactional group discussion: results of a controlled trial using a behavioral intervention to reduce the use of injections in public health facilities. Soc Sci Med 42: 1177–1183.
-
39.
Thamlikitkul V, Danchaivijitr S, Kongpattanakul S, Ckokloikaew S, 1998. Impact of an educational program on antibiotic use in a tertiary care hospital in a developing country. J Clin Epidemiol 51: 773–778.
-
40.
Gutiérrez G, Guiscafré H, Bronfman M, Walsh J, Martínez H, Muñoz O, 1994. Changing physician prescribing patterns: evaluation of an educational strategy for acute diarrhea in Mexico City. Med Care 32: 436–446.
-
41.
Mangione-Smith R, Zhou C, Robinson JD, Taylor JA, Elliott MN, Heritage J, 2015. Communication practices and antibiotic use for acute respiratory tract infections in children. Ann Fam Med 13: 221–227.
-
42.
Gonzalez Ochoa E, Armas Perez L, Bravo Gonzalez JR, Cabrales Escobar J, Rosales Corrales R, Abreu Suarez G, 1996. Prescription of antibiotics for mild acute respiratory infections in children. Bull Pan Am Health Organ 30: 106–117.
-
43.
le Grand A, Hogerzeil HV, Haaijer-Ruskamp FM, 1999. Intervention research in rational use of drugs: a review. Health Policy Plan 14: 89–102.
-
44.
Huttner B, Goossens H, Verheij T, Harbarth S, 2010. Characteristics and outcomes of public campaigns aimed at improving the use of antibiotics in outpatients in high-income countries. Lancet Infect Dis 10: 17–31.
-
45.
Zahid AB, Gilani AH, Nanan D, Sheikh AL, White F, 2005. Quality of pharmacies in Pakistan: a cross-sectional survey. Int J Qual Health Care 17: 307–313.
-
46.
Okeke IN, Klugman KP, Bhutta ZA, Duse AG, Jenkins P, O'Brien TF, Pablos-Mendez A, Laxminarayan R, 2005. Antimicrobial resistance in developing countries. Part II: strategies for containment. Lancet Infect Dis 5: 568–580.
-
47.
Bowen A, Hurd J, Hoover C, Khachadourian Y, Traphagen E, Harvey E, Libby T, Ehlers S, Ongpin M, Norton JC, Bicknese A, Kimura A, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 2015. Importation and domestic transmission of Shigella sonnei resistant to ciprofloxacin—United States, May 2014–February 2015. MMWR 64: 318–320.
-
48.
Ruppé E, Armand-Lefèvre L, Estellat C, Consigny PH, El Mniai A, Boussadia Y, Goujon C, Ralaimazava P, Campa P, Girard PM, Wyplosz B, Vittecoq D, Bouchaud O, Le Loup G, Pialoux G, Perrier M, Wieder I, Moussa N, Esposito-Farèse M, Hoffmann I, Coignard B, Lucet JC, Andremont A, Matheron S, 2015. High rate of acquisition but short duration of carriage of multidrug-resistant enterobacteriaceae after travel to the tropics. Clin Infect Dis 61: 593–600.
| Past two years | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 31 | 31 | 7 |
| Full Text Views | 368 | 118 | 0 |
| PDF Downloads | 78 | 18 | 0 |