Dias JCP, Silveira AC, Schofield CJ, 2002. The impact of Chagas disease control in Latin America—a review. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 97: 603–612.
Apt W, 2010. Current and developing therapeutic agents in the treatment of Chagas disease. Drug Des Devel Ther 4: 243–253.
Dias JCP, Schofield CJ, 1999. The evolution of Chagas disease (American trypanosomiasis) control after 90 years since Carlos Chagas' discovery. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 94 (Suppl 1): 103–121.
Schmunis GA, Zicker F, Pinherio F, Branding-Bennett D, 1998. Risk for transfusion-transmitted infectious diseases in Central and South America. Emerg Infect Dis 4: 5–11.
Schmunis GA, Rodriguez G, Coenen J, Bellorin EG, Gianella A, 2008. Prevention of blood-borne diseases in Bolivia, 1993–2002. Am J Trop Med Hyg 79: 803–808.
WHO, 2012. Accelerating Work to Overcome the Global Impact of Neglected Tropical Diseases—A Roadmap for Implementation. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO.
WHO, 2010. Chagas Disease: Control and Elimination. Sixty-third World Health Assembly Resolutions, May 17–21, 2010. Resolution WHA 63.20. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO, 39–42. Available at: http://www.who.int/neglected_diseases/mediacentre/WHA_63.20_Eng.pdf. Accessed March 24, 2014.
Schmunis GA, Yadon ZE, 2010. Chagas disease: a Latin American health problem becoming a world health problem. Acta Trop 115: 14–21.
Yadon ZE, Schmunis GA, 2009. Congenital Chagas disease: estimating the potential risk in the United States. Am J Trop Med Hyg 81: 927–933.
Merino FJ, Martínez-Ruiz R, Olabarrieta I, Merino P, García-Bujalance S, Gastañaga T, Flores-Chavez M; Grupo de Estudio de la Enfermedad de Chagas de la Comunidad de Madrid, 2013. Control of Chagas disease in pregnant Latin-American women and her children. Rev Esp Quimioter 26: 253–260.
Di Pentima MC, Hwang LY, Skeeter CM, Edwards MS, 1999. Prevalence of antibody to Trypanosoma cruzi in pregnant Hispanic women in Houston. Clin Infect Dis 28: 1281–1285.
Olivera MA, Guillén OF, Cruz VS, Hernández BN, Pérez GE, Córdova CG, Reyes PA, Monteón VM, 2006. Serological and parasitological screening of Trypanosoma cruzi infection in mothers and newborns living in two chagasic areas of Mexico. Arch Med Res 37: 774–777.
Sosa-Estani S, Gamboa-León MR, Del Cid-Lemus J, Althabe F, Alger J, Almendares O, Cafferata ML, Chippaux JP, Dumonteil E, Gibbons L, Padilla-Raygoza N, Schneider D, Belizán JM, Buekens P; Working Group, 2008. Use of a rapid test on umbilical cord blood to screen for Trypanosoma cruzi infection in pregnant women in Argentina, Bolivia, Honduras, and Mexico. Am J Trop Med Hyg 79: 755–759.
Sánchez NO, Mora MC, Basombrío MA, 2005. High prevalence of congenital Trypanosoma cruzi infection and family clustering in Salta, Argentina. Pediatrics 115: e668–e672.
Barona-Vilar C, Giménez-Martí MJ, Fraile T, González-Steinbauer C, Parada C, Gil-Brusola A, Bravo D, Gómez MD, Navarro D, Perez-Tamarit A, Fernandez-Silveira L, Fullana-Montoro A, Borrás R, 2012. Prevalence of Trypanosoma cruzi infection in pregnant Latin American women and congenital transmission rate in a non-endemic area: the experience of the Valencian Health Programme (Spain). Epidemiol Infect 140: 1896–1903.
Salas NA, Cot M, Schneider D, Mendoza B, Santalla JA, Postigo J, Chippaux JP, Brutus L, 2007. Risk factors and consequence of congenital Chagas disease in Yacuiba, south Bolivia. Trop Med Int Health 12: 1498–1505.
PAHO, 2006. Estimación cuantitativa de la enfermedad de Chagas en las américas. Documento OPS/HDM/CD/425-06. Montevideo, Uruguay: OPS.
Schmunis GA, Zicker F, Cruz J, Cuchi P, 2001. Safety of blood supply for infectious diseases in Latin American countries, 1994–1997. Am J Trop Med Hyg 65: 924–930.
Ministerio de Salud de El Salvador, Japan International Cooperation Agency, 2010. Informe de la evaluación final del projecto de control de la enfermedad de Chagas fase 2 en la República de El Salvador [in Spanish]. San Salvador, El Salvador: MINSAL/JICA.
Sasagawa E, Aiga H, Corado EY, Cuyuch BL, Hernández MA, Guevara AV, Romero JE, Ramos HM, Cedillos RA, Misago C, Kita K, 2015. Risk factors for Chagas disease among pregnant women in El Salvador. Trop Med Int Health 20: 268–276.
Aiga H, Sasagawa E, Hashimoto K, Nakamura J, Zúniga C, Romero Chévez JE, Ramos Hernández HM, Nakagawa J, Tabaru Y, 2012. Chagas disease: assessing the existence of a threshold for bug infestation rate exist? Am J Trop Med Hyg 86: 972–979.
Cedillos RA, Francia H, Soundy CJ, Ascencio G, Valcarcel NM, 2011. Estudio epidemiológico de la infección por Trypanosoma cruzi en El Salvador, Centro América. Minerva Revista en Línea CIC-UES 2: 35–46. Available at: http://www.minerva.cic.ues.edu.sv/makeupwebsitetemplate/articulos/Ciencias%20de%20la%20Salud/T.cruzi.pdf. Accessed March 7, 2014.
Ministerio de Economía de El Salvador, 2008. VI Censo de Población y V de Vivienda 2007. San Salvador, El Salvador: Dirección General de Estadística y Censos, Ministerio de Economía.
Sasagawa E, Aguilar AV, Ramírez MA, Chévez JE, Nakagawa J, Cedillos RA, Misago C, Kita K, 2014. Prevalence of Trypanosoma cruzi infection in blood donors in El Salvador from 2001 to 2011. J Infect Dev Ctries 8: 1029–1036.
Ministerio de Salud de El Salvador, 2011. Norma Técnica para la Prevención y Control de la Enfermedad de Chagas, 2nd edición. San Salvador, El Salvador: Dirección de Regulación y Legislación en Salud, Unidad de Salud Ambiental, MINSAL.
Ponce C, Ponce E, Vinelli E, Montoya A, de Aguilar V, Gonzalez A, Zingales B, Rangel-Aldao R, Levin MJ, Esfandiari J, Umezawa ES, Luquetti AO, da Silveira JF, 2005. Validation of a rapid and reliable test for diagnosis of Chagas' disease by detection of Trypanosoma cruzi-specific antibodies in blood of donors and patients in Central America. J Clin Microbiol 43: 5065–5068.
Luquetti AO, Ponce C, Ponce E, Esfandiari J, Schijman A, Revollo S, Añez N, Zingales B, Ramgel-Aldao R, Gonzalez A, Levin MJ, Umezawa ES, Franco da Silveira J, 2003. Chagas' disease diagnosis: a multicentric evaluation of Chagas Stat-Pak, a rapid immunochromatographic assay with recombinant proteins of Trypanosoma cruzi. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 46: 265–271.
Gamboa-León R, Ramirez-Gonzalez C, Pacheco-Tucuch FS, O'Shea M, Rosecrans K, Pippitt J, Dumonteil E, Buekens P, 2014. Seroprevalence of Trypanosoma cruzi among mothers and children in rural Mayan communities and associated reproductive outcomes. Am J Trop Med Hyg 91: 348–353.
Gamboa-León R, Gonzalez-Ramirez C, Padilla-Raygoza N, Sosa-Estani S, Caamal-Kantun A, Buekens P, Dumonteil E, 2011. Do commercial serologic tests for Trypanosoma cruzi infection detect Mexican strains in women and newborns? J Parasitol 97: 338–343.
Verani JR, Seitz A, Gilman RH, LaFuente C, Galdos-Cardenas G, Kawai V, de LaFuente E, Ferrufino L, Bowman NM, Pinedo-Cancino V, Levy MZ, Steurer F, Todd CW, Kirchhoff LV, Cabrera L, Verastegui M, Bern C, 2009. Geographic variation in the sensitivity of recombinant antigen-based rapid tests for chronic Trypanosoma cruzi infection. Am J Trop Med Hyg 80: 410–415.
Carlier Y, Truyens C, 2010. Maternal-fetal transmission of Trypanosoma cruzi. Telleria J, Tibayrenc M, eds. American Trypanosomiasis: Chagas Disease, One Hundred Years of Research. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevier, 539–581.
Chippaux JP, Clavijo AN, Santalla JA, Postigo JR, Schneider D, Brutus L, 2009. Antibody drop in newborns congenitally infected by Trypanosoma cruzi treated with benznidazole. Trop Med Int Health 15: 87–93.
Carlier Y, Torrico F, Sosa-Estani S, Russomando G, Luquetti A, Freilij H, Albajar Vinas P, 2011. Congenital Chagas disease: recommendations for diagnosis, treatment and control of newborns, siblings and pregnant women. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 5: e1250.
PAHO, 2013. Progress Report: Elimination of Mother-to-Child Transmission of HIV and Congenital Syphilis in the Americas, 2012. Washington, DC: PAHO.
Ministerio de Salud de El Salvador, 2011. Informe Nacional sobre el Estado de Situación del VIH en El Salvador en Cumplimiento del Plan Nacional de Nomitoreo y Evaluación Año 2010. San Salvador, El Salvador: Programa Nacional de ITS/VIH/Sida.
UNICEF, 2013. The State of the World's Children: Children with Disabilities. New York, NY: UNICEF.
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To estimate the incidence (any mother to child) and rate (from seropositive mother to child) of mother-to-child transmission of Trypanosoma cruzi, a serological census was conducted, targeting pregnant women and infants born to seropositive mothers, in four municipalities of El Salvador. Of 943 pregnant women, 36 (3.8%) were seropositive for T. cruzi. Of 36, 32 proceeded to serological tests of their infants when they became 6–8 months of age. Six infants seropositive at the age of 6–8 months further proceeded to second-stage serological test at the age of 9–16 months. As the result, one infant was congenitally infected. Thus, serological tests at the age of 6–8 months produced five false positives. To ensure earlier effective medication only for true positives, identification of seropositive infants at the age of 9–16 months is crucial. Incidence and rate of mother-to-child transmission were 0.14 (per 100 person-years) and 4.0%, respectively. Estimated number of children infected through mother-to-child transmission in El Salvador (170 per year) was much higher than that of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV; seven per year). It is recommended that serological testing for T. cruzi be integrated into those for HIV and syphilis as part of antenatal care package.
Financial support: This work was supported by the Ministry of Health, El Salvador, and Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA).
Authors' addresses: Emi Sasagawa and Kiyoshi Kita, Department of Biomedical Chemistry, School of International Health, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan, E-mails: e-sasagawa@umin.ac.jp and kitak@m.u-tokyo.ac.jp. Hirotsugu Aiga, Human Development Department, Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), Tokyo, Japan, and Department of Global Health, Milken Institute School of Public Health, The George Washington University, Washington, DC, E-mail: aiga.hirotsugu@jica.go.jp. Edith Yanira Corado Soriano, Sección de Epidemiología, SIBASI Sonsonate, Ministerio de Salud de El Salvador (MINSAL), Sonsonate, El Salvador, E-mail: edith_corado@yahoo.es. Blanca Leticia Cuyuch Marroquín, Programa de Materno Infantil, Dirección Regional de Salud Zona Occidente, Ministerio de Salud de El Salvador (MINSAL), Santa Ana, El Salvador, E-mail: cuyuch@gmail.com. Marta Alicia Hernández Ramírez and Ana Vilma Guevara de Aguilar, Unidad de Vigilancia Laboratorial, Ministerio de Salud de El Salvador (MINSAL), San Salvador, El Salvador, E-mails: martah_ramirez@yahoo.es and anavilmadeaguilar@yahoo.es. José Eduardo Romero Chévez, Unidad de Vigilancia de Enfermedades Vectorizadas, Ministerio de Salud de El Salvador (MINSAL), San Salvador, El Salvador, E-mail: eromerochevez@yahoo.es. Hector Manuel Ramos Hernández, Dirección de Vigilancia Sanitaria, Ministerio de Salud de El Salvador (MINSAL), San Salvador, El Salvador, E-mail: el.cadejo@gmail.com. Rafael Antonio Cedillos, Consejo de Investigaciones Científicas (CIC-UES), Universidad de El Salvador, San Salvador, El Salvador, E-mail: rcedillos@navegante.com.sv. Chizuru Misago, Department of International and Cultural Studies, Tsuda College, Tokyo, Japan, E-mail: cmisago@tsuda.ac.jp.
Dias JCP, Silveira AC, Schofield CJ, 2002. The impact of Chagas disease control in Latin America—a review. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 97: 603–612.
Apt W, 2010. Current and developing therapeutic agents in the treatment of Chagas disease. Drug Des Devel Ther 4: 243–253.
Dias JCP, Schofield CJ, 1999. The evolution of Chagas disease (American trypanosomiasis) control after 90 years since Carlos Chagas' discovery. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 94 (Suppl 1): 103–121.
Schmunis GA, Zicker F, Pinherio F, Branding-Bennett D, 1998. Risk for transfusion-transmitted infectious diseases in Central and South America. Emerg Infect Dis 4: 5–11.
Schmunis GA, Rodriguez G, Coenen J, Bellorin EG, Gianella A, 2008. Prevention of blood-borne diseases in Bolivia, 1993–2002. Am J Trop Med Hyg 79: 803–808.
WHO, 2012. Accelerating Work to Overcome the Global Impact of Neglected Tropical Diseases—A Roadmap for Implementation. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO.
WHO, 2010. Chagas Disease: Control and Elimination. Sixty-third World Health Assembly Resolutions, May 17–21, 2010. Resolution WHA 63.20. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO, 39–42. Available at: http://www.who.int/neglected_diseases/mediacentre/WHA_63.20_Eng.pdf. Accessed March 24, 2014.
Schmunis GA, Yadon ZE, 2010. Chagas disease: a Latin American health problem becoming a world health problem. Acta Trop 115: 14–21.
Yadon ZE, Schmunis GA, 2009. Congenital Chagas disease: estimating the potential risk in the United States. Am J Trop Med Hyg 81: 927–933.
Merino FJ, Martínez-Ruiz R, Olabarrieta I, Merino P, García-Bujalance S, Gastañaga T, Flores-Chavez M; Grupo de Estudio de la Enfermedad de Chagas de la Comunidad de Madrid, 2013. Control of Chagas disease in pregnant Latin-American women and her children. Rev Esp Quimioter 26: 253–260.
Di Pentima MC, Hwang LY, Skeeter CM, Edwards MS, 1999. Prevalence of antibody to Trypanosoma cruzi in pregnant Hispanic women in Houston. Clin Infect Dis 28: 1281–1285.
Olivera MA, Guillén OF, Cruz VS, Hernández BN, Pérez GE, Córdova CG, Reyes PA, Monteón VM, 2006. Serological and parasitological screening of Trypanosoma cruzi infection in mothers and newborns living in two chagasic areas of Mexico. Arch Med Res 37: 774–777.
Sosa-Estani S, Gamboa-León MR, Del Cid-Lemus J, Althabe F, Alger J, Almendares O, Cafferata ML, Chippaux JP, Dumonteil E, Gibbons L, Padilla-Raygoza N, Schneider D, Belizán JM, Buekens P; Working Group, 2008. Use of a rapid test on umbilical cord blood to screen for Trypanosoma cruzi infection in pregnant women in Argentina, Bolivia, Honduras, and Mexico. Am J Trop Med Hyg 79: 755–759.
Sánchez NO, Mora MC, Basombrío MA, 2005. High prevalence of congenital Trypanosoma cruzi infection and family clustering in Salta, Argentina. Pediatrics 115: e668–e672.
Barona-Vilar C, Giménez-Martí MJ, Fraile T, González-Steinbauer C, Parada C, Gil-Brusola A, Bravo D, Gómez MD, Navarro D, Perez-Tamarit A, Fernandez-Silveira L, Fullana-Montoro A, Borrás R, 2012. Prevalence of Trypanosoma cruzi infection in pregnant Latin American women and congenital transmission rate in a non-endemic area: the experience of the Valencian Health Programme (Spain). Epidemiol Infect 140: 1896–1903.
Salas NA, Cot M, Schneider D, Mendoza B, Santalla JA, Postigo J, Chippaux JP, Brutus L, 2007. Risk factors and consequence of congenital Chagas disease in Yacuiba, south Bolivia. Trop Med Int Health 12: 1498–1505.
PAHO, 2006. Estimación cuantitativa de la enfermedad de Chagas en las américas. Documento OPS/HDM/CD/425-06. Montevideo, Uruguay: OPS.
Schmunis GA, Zicker F, Cruz J, Cuchi P, 2001. Safety of blood supply for infectious diseases in Latin American countries, 1994–1997. Am J Trop Med Hyg 65: 924–930.
Ministerio de Salud de El Salvador, Japan International Cooperation Agency, 2010. Informe de la evaluación final del projecto de control de la enfermedad de Chagas fase 2 en la República de El Salvador [in Spanish]. San Salvador, El Salvador: MINSAL/JICA.
Sasagawa E, Aiga H, Corado EY, Cuyuch BL, Hernández MA, Guevara AV, Romero JE, Ramos HM, Cedillos RA, Misago C, Kita K, 2015. Risk factors for Chagas disease among pregnant women in El Salvador. Trop Med Int Health 20: 268–276.
Aiga H, Sasagawa E, Hashimoto K, Nakamura J, Zúniga C, Romero Chévez JE, Ramos Hernández HM, Nakagawa J, Tabaru Y, 2012. Chagas disease: assessing the existence of a threshold for bug infestation rate exist? Am J Trop Med Hyg 86: 972–979.
Cedillos RA, Francia H, Soundy CJ, Ascencio G, Valcarcel NM, 2011. Estudio epidemiológico de la infección por Trypanosoma cruzi en El Salvador, Centro América. Minerva Revista en Línea CIC-UES 2: 35–46. Available at: http://www.minerva.cic.ues.edu.sv/makeupwebsitetemplate/articulos/Ciencias%20de%20la%20Salud/T.cruzi.pdf. Accessed March 7, 2014.
Ministerio de Economía de El Salvador, 2008. VI Censo de Población y V de Vivienda 2007. San Salvador, El Salvador: Dirección General de Estadística y Censos, Ministerio de Economía.
Sasagawa E, Aguilar AV, Ramírez MA, Chévez JE, Nakagawa J, Cedillos RA, Misago C, Kita K, 2014. Prevalence of Trypanosoma cruzi infection in blood donors in El Salvador from 2001 to 2011. J Infect Dev Ctries 8: 1029–1036.
Ministerio de Salud de El Salvador, 2011. Norma Técnica para la Prevención y Control de la Enfermedad de Chagas, 2nd edición. San Salvador, El Salvador: Dirección de Regulación y Legislación en Salud, Unidad de Salud Ambiental, MINSAL.
Ponce C, Ponce E, Vinelli E, Montoya A, de Aguilar V, Gonzalez A, Zingales B, Rangel-Aldao R, Levin MJ, Esfandiari J, Umezawa ES, Luquetti AO, da Silveira JF, 2005. Validation of a rapid and reliable test for diagnosis of Chagas' disease by detection of Trypanosoma cruzi-specific antibodies in blood of donors and patients in Central America. J Clin Microbiol 43: 5065–5068.
Luquetti AO, Ponce C, Ponce E, Esfandiari J, Schijman A, Revollo S, Añez N, Zingales B, Ramgel-Aldao R, Gonzalez A, Levin MJ, Umezawa ES, Franco da Silveira J, 2003. Chagas' disease diagnosis: a multicentric evaluation of Chagas Stat-Pak, a rapid immunochromatographic assay with recombinant proteins of Trypanosoma cruzi. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 46: 265–271.
Gamboa-León R, Ramirez-Gonzalez C, Pacheco-Tucuch FS, O'Shea M, Rosecrans K, Pippitt J, Dumonteil E, Buekens P, 2014. Seroprevalence of Trypanosoma cruzi among mothers and children in rural Mayan communities and associated reproductive outcomes. Am J Trop Med Hyg 91: 348–353.
Gamboa-León R, Gonzalez-Ramirez C, Padilla-Raygoza N, Sosa-Estani S, Caamal-Kantun A, Buekens P, Dumonteil E, 2011. Do commercial serologic tests for Trypanosoma cruzi infection detect Mexican strains in women and newborns? J Parasitol 97: 338–343.
Verani JR, Seitz A, Gilman RH, LaFuente C, Galdos-Cardenas G, Kawai V, de LaFuente E, Ferrufino L, Bowman NM, Pinedo-Cancino V, Levy MZ, Steurer F, Todd CW, Kirchhoff LV, Cabrera L, Verastegui M, Bern C, 2009. Geographic variation in the sensitivity of recombinant antigen-based rapid tests for chronic Trypanosoma cruzi infection. Am J Trop Med Hyg 80: 410–415.
Carlier Y, Truyens C, 2010. Maternal-fetal transmission of Trypanosoma cruzi. Telleria J, Tibayrenc M, eds. American Trypanosomiasis: Chagas Disease, One Hundred Years of Research. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevier, 539–581.
Chippaux JP, Clavijo AN, Santalla JA, Postigo JR, Schneider D, Brutus L, 2009. Antibody drop in newborns congenitally infected by Trypanosoma cruzi treated with benznidazole. Trop Med Int Health 15: 87–93.
Carlier Y, Torrico F, Sosa-Estani S, Russomando G, Luquetti A, Freilij H, Albajar Vinas P, 2011. Congenital Chagas disease: recommendations for diagnosis, treatment and control of newborns, siblings and pregnant women. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 5: e1250.
PAHO, 2013. Progress Report: Elimination of Mother-to-Child Transmission of HIV and Congenital Syphilis in the Americas, 2012. Washington, DC: PAHO.
Ministerio de Salud de El Salvador, 2011. Informe Nacional sobre el Estado de Situación del VIH en El Salvador en Cumplimiento del Plan Nacional de Nomitoreo y Evaluación Año 2010. San Salvador, El Salvador: Programa Nacional de ITS/VIH/Sida.
UNICEF, 2013. The State of the World's Children: Children with Disabilities. New York, NY: UNICEF.
Past two years | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
---|---|---|---|
Abstract Views | 26 | 26 | 7 |
Full Text Views | 363 | 79 | 1 |
PDF Downloads | 80 | 20 | 1 |