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1.
Angus W, 1919. Report on Malaria in the Egyptian Expeditionary Force during 1918. Cairo, Egypt: Royal Army Medical Corps.
-
2.
Shanks GD, 2014. How World War 1 changed global attitudes to war and infectious diseases. Lancet 384: 1699–1707.
-
3.
Morens DM, Fauci AS, 2007. The 1918 influenza pandemic: insights for the 21st century. J Infect Dis 195: 1018–1028.
-
4.
Fairley NH, 1920. The causes of death from malaria in Palestine: a study in cellular pathology. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 13: 121–125.
-
5.
Manson-Bahr P, 1920. Experiences of malaria in the Egyptian Expeditionary Force. Lancet 195: 79–85.
-
6.
Wenyon C, Anderson A, McLay K, Hele T, Waterston J, 1921. Malaria in Macedonia, 1915–1919. J R Army Med Corps 37: 83–108.
-
7.
French H, Herringham W, 1922. Influenza. MacPhearson W, Herringham W, Elliott T, Balfour A, eds. Medical Services Diseases of the War. London, United Kingdom: HMSO, 174–222.
-
8.
Shanks GD, White NJ, 2013. The activation of vivax malaria hypnozoites by infectious diseases. Lancet Infect Dis 13: 900–906.
-
9.
Mitchell T, Smith G, 1931. Casualties and medical statistics of the Great War. MacPhearson W, Herringham W, Elliott T, Balfour A, eds. Medical Services History of the Great War. London, United Kingdom: HMSO, 252–260.
-
10.
MacPhearson W, Mitchell T, 1924. East Africa campaign. MacPhearson W, Herringham W, Elliott T, Balfour A, eds. Medical Services Diseases of the War. London, United Kingdom: HMSO, 493–504.
-
11.
Ndonwi M, Burlingame OO, Miller AS, Tollefsen DM, Broze GJ Jr, Goldberg DE, 2011. Inhibition of antithrombin by Plasmodium falciparum histidine-rich protein II. Blood 117: 6347–6354.
-
12.
Berri F, Rimmelzwaan GF, Hanss M, Albina E, Foucault-Grunenwald ML, Le VB, Vogelzang-van Trierum SE, Gil P, Camerer E, Martinez D, Lina B, Lijnen R, Carmeliet P, Riteau B, 2013. Plasminogen controls inflammation and pathogenesis of influenza virus infections via fibrinolysis. PLoS Pathog 9: e1003229.
-
13.
Chaipan C, Kobasa D, Bertram S, Glowacka I, Steffen I, Tsegaye TS, Takeda M, Bugge TH, Kim S, Park Y, Marzi A, Pohlmann S, 2009. Proteolytic activation of the 1918 influenza virus hemagglutinin. J Virol 83: 3200–3211.
-
14.
Shanks GD, Brundage JF, 2012. Pathogenic responses among young adults during the 1918 influenza pandemic. Emerg Infect Dis 18: 201–207.
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Synergistic Mortality Caused by Plasmodium falciparum During the 1918 Influenza Pandemic
G. Dennis Shanks
G. Dennis Shanks
Australian Army Malaria Institute, Enoggera, Australia; University of Queensland, School of Population Health, Brisbane, Australia; Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
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At the end of World War I, British medical officers noted that soldiers infected with malaria were more likely to die during the 1918 influenza pandemic than those without malaria. This synergistic mortality appeared to be specific to Plasmodium falciparum and has not been generally noted since 1920. A possible explanation is that a malaria-induced procoagulant state enhanced the activation of influenza virus to increase inflammation and subsequent severe clinical outcomes. Falciparum proteins bind and likely inhibit antithrombin 3 and other factors. Pathogens interact in ways that may inform pathophysiology studies of remote epidemics.
Author Notes
Financial support: G. Dennis Shanks is an employee of the Australian Defence Force and received support for influenza studies from the Armed Forces Health Surveillance Center of the U.S. Department of Defense, Silver Spring, MD.
Author's addresses: G. Dennis Shanks, Australian Army Malaria Institute, Enoggera, Australia, University of Queensland, School of Population Health, Brisbane, Australia, and Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom, E-mail: dennis.shanks@defence.gov.au.
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1.
Angus W, 1919. Report on Malaria in the Egyptian Expeditionary Force during 1918. Cairo, Egypt: Royal Army Medical Corps.
-
2.
Shanks GD, 2014. How World War 1 changed global attitudes to war and infectious diseases. Lancet 384: 1699–1707.
-
3.
Morens DM, Fauci AS, 2007. The 1918 influenza pandemic: insights for the 21st century. J Infect Dis 195: 1018–1028.
-
4.
Fairley NH, 1920. The causes of death from malaria in Palestine: a study in cellular pathology. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 13: 121–125.
-
5.
Manson-Bahr P, 1920. Experiences of malaria in the Egyptian Expeditionary Force. Lancet 195: 79–85.
-
6.
Wenyon C, Anderson A, McLay K, Hele T, Waterston J, 1921. Malaria in Macedonia, 1915–1919. J R Army Med Corps 37: 83–108.
-
7.
French H, Herringham W, 1922. Influenza. MacPhearson W, Herringham W, Elliott T, Balfour A, eds. Medical Services Diseases of the War. London, United Kingdom: HMSO, 174–222.
-
8.
Shanks GD, White NJ, 2013. The activation of vivax malaria hypnozoites by infectious diseases. Lancet Infect Dis 13: 900–906.
-
9.
Mitchell T, Smith G, 1931. Casualties and medical statistics of the Great War. MacPhearson W, Herringham W, Elliott T, Balfour A, eds. Medical Services History of the Great War. London, United Kingdom: HMSO, 252–260.
-
10.
MacPhearson W, Mitchell T, 1924. East Africa campaign. MacPhearson W, Herringham W, Elliott T, Balfour A, eds. Medical Services Diseases of the War. London, United Kingdom: HMSO, 493–504.
-
11.
Ndonwi M, Burlingame OO, Miller AS, Tollefsen DM, Broze GJ Jr, Goldberg DE, 2011. Inhibition of antithrombin by Plasmodium falciparum histidine-rich protein II. Blood 117: 6347–6354.
-
12.
Berri F, Rimmelzwaan GF, Hanss M, Albina E, Foucault-Grunenwald ML, Le VB, Vogelzang-van Trierum SE, Gil P, Camerer E, Martinez D, Lina B, Lijnen R, Carmeliet P, Riteau B, 2013. Plasminogen controls inflammation and pathogenesis of influenza virus infections via fibrinolysis. PLoS Pathog 9: e1003229.
-
13.
Chaipan C, Kobasa D, Bertram S, Glowacka I, Steffen I, Tsegaye TS, Takeda M, Bugge TH, Kim S, Park Y, Marzi A, Pohlmann S, 2009. Proteolytic activation of the 1918 influenza virus hemagglutinin. J Virol 83: 3200–3211.
-
14.
Shanks GD, Brundage JF, 2012. Pathogenic responses among young adults during the 1918 influenza pandemic. Emerg Infect Dis 18: 201–207.
| Past two years | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 19 | 19 | 0 |
| Full Text Views | 279 | 89 | 0 |
| PDF Downloads | 48 | 11 | 0 |