ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1.
Crimmins EM, Finch CE, 2006. Infection, inflammation, height, and longevity. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103: 498–503.
-
2.
Fewtrell L, Kaufmann RB, Kay D, Enanoria W, Haller L, Colford JM Jr, 2005. Water, sanitation, and hygiene interventions to reduce diarrhoea in less developed countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Infect Dis 5: 42–52.
-
3.
Waddington H, Snilstveit B, White H, Fewtrell L, 2009. Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Interventions to Combat Childhood Diarrhoea in Developing Countries. International Initiative for Impact Evaluation; 2009. Available at: http://www.3ieimpact.org/media/filer_public/2012/05/07/17.pdf. Accessed August 8, 2014.
-
4.
Dangour AD, Watson L, Cumming O, Boisson S, Che Y, Velleman Y, Cavill S, Allen E, Uauy R, 2013. Interventions to improve water quality and supply, sanitation and hygiene practices, and their effects on the nutritional status of children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 8: CD009382.
-
5.
Arnold BF, Null C, Luby SP, Unicomb L, Stewart CP, Dewey KG, Ahmed T, Ashraf S, Christensen G, Clasen T, Dentz HN, Fernald LCH, Haque R, Hubbard AE, Kariger P, Leontsini E, Lin A, Njenga SM, Pickering AJ, Ram PK, Tofail F, Winch P, Colford JM Jr, 2013. Cluster-randomized controlled trials of individual and combined water, sanitation, hygiene, and nutritional interventions in rural Bangladesh and Kenya: the WASH Benefits Study design and rationale. BMJ Open 3: e003476.
-
6.
Kremer M, Leino J, Miguel E, Zwane AP, 2011. spring cleaning: rural water impacts, valuation, and property rights institutions. Q J Econ 126: 145–205.
-
7.
Rosa G, Clasen T, 2010. Estimating the scope of household water treatment in low- and medium-income countries. Am J Trop Med Hyg 82: 289–300.
-
8.
Hunter PR, 2009. Household water treatment in developing countries: comparing different intervention types using meta-regression. Environ Sci Technol 43: 8991–8997.
-
9.
Schmidt W-P, Cairncross S, 2009. Household water treatment in poor populations: is there enough evidence for scaling up now? Environ Sci Technol 43: 986–992.
-
10.
Makutsa P, Nzaku K, Ogutu P, Barasa P, Ombeki S, Mwaki A, Quick RE, 2001. Challenges in implementing a point-of-use water quality intervention in rural Kenya. Am J Public Health 91: 1571–1573.
-
11.
Clasen T, Boisson S, Routray P, Cumming O, Jenkins M, Ensink JHJ, Bell M, Freeman MC, Peppin S, Schmidt W-P, 2012. The effect of improved rural sanitation on diarrhoea and helminth infection: design of a cluster- randomized trial in Orissa, India. Emerg Themes Epidemiol 9: 7.
-
12.
Gil A, Lanata C, Kleinau E, Penny M, 2004. Children's feces disposal practices in developing countries and interventions to prevent diarrheal diseases: a literature review. Environ Health Proj USAID. Available at: http://www.ehproject.org/PDF/Strategic_papers/SR11-Child%20Excreta%20Format.pdf. Accessed February 8, 2014.
-
13.
Sultana R, Mondal UK, Rimi NA, Unicomb L, Winch PJ, Nahar N, Luby SP, 2013. An improved tool for household faeces management in rural Bangladeshi communities. Trop Med Int Health 18: 854–860.
-
14.
Luby SP, Agboatwalla M, Feikin DR, Painter J, Billhimer W, Altaf A, Hoekstra RM, 2005. Effect of handwashing on child health: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 366: 225–233.
-
15.
Greene LE, Freeman MC, Akoko D, Saboori S, Moe C, Rheingans R, 2012. Impact of a school-based hygiene promotion and sanitation intervention on pupil hand contamination in western Kenya: a cluster randomized trial. Am J Trop Med Hyg 87: 385–393.
-
16.
Devine J, 2010. Beyond tippy-taps: the role of enabling products in scaling up and sustaining handwashing. Waterlines 29: 304–314.
-
17.
Biran A, 2011. Enabling Technologies for Handwashing with Soap: A Case Study on the Tippy-Tap in Uganda. World Bank Water and Sanitation Program. Available at: https://wsp.org/sites/wsp.org/files/publications/uganda-tippy-tap-hwws.pdf. Accessed March 6, 2014.
-
18.
Briscoe C, Aboud F, 2012. Behaviour change communication targeting four health behaviours in developing countries: a review of change techniques. Soc Sci Med 75: 612–621.
-
19.
Biran A, Schmidt W-P, Varadharajan KS, Rajaraman D, Kumar R, Greenland K, Gopalan B, Aunger R, Curtis V, 2014. Effect of a behaviour-change intervention on handwashing with soap in India (SuperAmma): a cluster-randomised trial. Lancet Glob Health 2: e145–e154.
-
20.
Arimond M, Zeilani M, Jungjohann S, Brown KH, Ashorn P, Allen LH, Dewey KG, 2013. Considerations in developing lipid-based nutrient supplements for prevention of undernutrition: experience from the International Lipid-Based Nutrient Supplements (iLiNS) Project. Matern Child Nutr, doi:10.1111/mcn.12049.
-
21.
Ahuja A, Kremer M, Zwane AP, 2010. Providing safe water: evidence from randomized evaluations. Annu Rev Resour Econ 2: 237–256.
-
22.
Kotloff KL, Nataro JP, Blackwelder WC, Nasrin D, Farag TH, Panchalingam S, Wu Y, Sow SO, Sur D, Breiman RF, Faruque AS, Zaidi AK, Saha D, Alonso PL, Tamboura B, Sanogo D, Onwuchekwa U, Manna B, Ramamurthy T, Kanungo S, Ochieng JB, Omore R, Oundo JO, Hossain A, Das SK, Ahmed S, Qureshi S, Quadri F, Adegbola RA, Antonio M, Hossain MJ, Akinsola A, Mandomando I, Nhampossa T, Acácio S, Biswas K, O'Reilly CE, Mintz ED, Berkeley LY, Muhsen K, Sommerfelt H, Robins-Browne RM, Levine MM, 2013. Burden and aetiology of diarrhoeal disease in infants and young children in developing countries (the Global Enteric Multicenter Study, GEMS): a prospective, case-control study. Lancet 382: 209–222.
-
23.
Fishbein M, Yzer MC, 2003. Using theory to design effective health behavior interventions. Commun Theory 13: 164–183.
-
24.
Bandura A, 1986. Social Foundations of Thought and Action. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
-
25.
US Department of Health and Human Services, 2005. Theory at a Glance: A Guide for Health Promotion Practice. Ed National Institutes of Health NIH Publication 05-3896. Washington, DC: National Institutes of Health (NIH).
-
26.
Zwane AP, Zinman J, Dusen EV, Pariente W, Null C, Miguel E, Kremer M, Karlan D, Hornbeck R, Gine X, Duflo E, Devoto F, Crepon B, Banerjee A, 2011. Being surveyed can change later behavior and related parameter estimates. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 108: 1821–1826.
| Past two years | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 1923 | 1256 | 38 |
| Full Text Views | 3006 | 10 | 0 |
| PDF Downloads | 203 | 10 | 0 |
Pilot Cluster Randomized Controlled Trials to Evaluate Adoption of Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene Interventions and Their Combination in Rural Western Kenya
Garret Christensen
Garret Christensen
Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia; Innovations for Poverty Action, Busia, Kenya; Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California; Division of Epidemiology, University of California, Berkeley, California
Search for other papers by Garret Christensen in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by Garret Christensen in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Holly N. Dentz
Holly N. Dentz
Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia; Innovations for Poverty Action, Busia, Kenya; Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California; Division of Epidemiology, University of California, Berkeley, California
Search for other papers by Holly N. Dentz in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by Holly N. Dentz in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Amy J. Pickering
Amy J. Pickering
Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia; Innovations for Poverty Action, Busia, Kenya; Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California; Division of Epidemiology, University of California, Berkeley, California
Search for other papers by Amy J. Pickering in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by Amy J. Pickering in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Tomoé Bourdier
Tomoé Bourdier
Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia; Innovations for Poverty Action, Busia, Kenya; Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California; Division of Epidemiology, University of California, Berkeley, California
Search for other papers by Tomoé Bourdier in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by Tomoé Bourdier in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Benjamin F. Arnold
Benjamin F. Arnold
Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia; Innovations for Poverty Action, Busia, Kenya; Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California; Division of Epidemiology, University of California, Berkeley, California
Search for other papers by Benjamin F. Arnold in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by Benjamin F. Arnold in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
John M. Colford Jr
John M. Colford Jr
Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia; Innovations for Poverty Action, Busia, Kenya; Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California; Division of Epidemiology, University of California, Berkeley, California
Search for other papers by John M. Colford Jr in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by John M. Colford Jr in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Clair Null
Clair Null
Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia; Innovations for Poverty Action, Busia, Kenya; Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California; Division of Epidemiology, University of California, Berkeley, California
Search for other papers by Clair Null in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by Clair Null in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
In preparation for a larger trial, the Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) Benefits pilot study enrolled 72 villages and 499 subjects in two closely related randomized trials of WASH interventions in rural western Kenya. Intervention households received hardware and promotion for one of the following: water treatment, sanitation and latrine improvements, handwashing with soap, or the combination of all three. Interventions were clustered by village. A follow-up survey was conducted 4 months after intervention delivery to assess uptake. Intervention households were significantly more likely than controls to have chlorinated stored water (36–60 percentage point increases), covers over latrine drop holes (55–75 percentage point increases), less stool visible on latrine floors (16–47 percentage point reductions), and a place for handwashing (71–85 percentage point increases) with soap available (49–66 percentage point increases). The high uptake in all arms shows that combined interventions can achieve high short-term adoption rates if well-designed.
Author Notes
Financial support: This work was funded by a grant to the University of California Berkeley from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation.
Authors' addresses: Garret Christensen, CEGA, UC Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, E-mail: garret@berkeley.edu. Holly N. Dentz Department of Nutrition, University of California, Davis, CA, E-mail: hdentz@ucdavis.edu. Clair Null, Mathematica Policy Research, Washington, DC, E-mail: cnull@mathematica-mpr.com. Amy J. Pickering, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, E-mail: amyjanel@stanford.edu. Tomoé Bourdier, Agricultural and Resource Economics, University of California, Davis, CA, E-mail: bourdier@primal.ucdavis.edu. Benjamin F. Arnold and John M. Colford Jr, Division of Epidemiology, University of California, Berkeley, CA, E-mails: benarnold@berkeley.edu and jcolford@ucberkeley.edu.
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1.
Crimmins EM, Finch CE, 2006. Infection, inflammation, height, and longevity. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103: 498–503.
-
2.
Fewtrell L, Kaufmann RB, Kay D, Enanoria W, Haller L, Colford JM Jr, 2005. Water, sanitation, and hygiene interventions to reduce diarrhoea in less developed countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Infect Dis 5: 42–52.
-
3.
Waddington H, Snilstveit B, White H, Fewtrell L, 2009. Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Interventions to Combat Childhood Diarrhoea in Developing Countries. International Initiative for Impact Evaluation; 2009. Available at: http://www.3ieimpact.org/media/filer_public/2012/05/07/17.pdf. Accessed August 8, 2014.
-
4.
Dangour AD, Watson L, Cumming O, Boisson S, Che Y, Velleman Y, Cavill S, Allen E, Uauy R, 2013. Interventions to improve water quality and supply, sanitation and hygiene practices, and their effects on the nutritional status of children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 8: CD009382.
-
5.
Arnold BF, Null C, Luby SP, Unicomb L, Stewart CP, Dewey KG, Ahmed T, Ashraf S, Christensen G, Clasen T, Dentz HN, Fernald LCH, Haque R, Hubbard AE, Kariger P, Leontsini E, Lin A, Njenga SM, Pickering AJ, Ram PK, Tofail F, Winch P, Colford JM Jr, 2013. Cluster-randomized controlled trials of individual and combined water, sanitation, hygiene, and nutritional interventions in rural Bangladesh and Kenya: the WASH Benefits Study design and rationale. BMJ Open 3: e003476.
-
6.
Kremer M, Leino J, Miguel E, Zwane AP, 2011. spring cleaning: rural water impacts, valuation, and property rights institutions. Q J Econ 126: 145–205.
-
7.
Rosa G, Clasen T, 2010. Estimating the scope of household water treatment in low- and medium-income countries. Am J Trop Med Hyg 82: 289–300.
-
8.
Hunter PR, 2009. Household water treatment in developing countries: comparing different intervention types using meta-regression. Environ Sci Technol 43: 8991–8997.
-
9.
Schmidt W-P, Cairncross S, 2009. Household water treatment in poor populations: is there enough evidence for scaling up now? Environ Sci Technol 43: 986–992.
-
10.
Makutsa P, Nzaku K, Ogutu P, Barasa P, Ombeki S, Mwaki A, Quick RE, 2001. Challenges in implementing a point-of-use water quality intervention in rural Kenya. Am J Public Health 91: 1571–1573.
-
11.
Clasen T, Boisson S, Routray P, Cumming O, Jenkins M, Ensink JHJ, Bell M, Freeman MC, Peppin S, Schmidt W-P, 2012. The effect of improved rural sanitation on diarrhoea and helminth infection: design of a cluster- randomized trial in Orissa, India. Emerg Themes Epidemiol 9: 7.
-
12.
Gil A, Lanata C, Kleinau E, Penny M, 2004. Children's feces disposal practices in developing countries and interventions to prevent diarrheal diseases: a literature review. Environ Health Proj USAID. Available at: http://www.ehproject.org/PDF/Strategic_papers/SR11-Child%20Excreta%20Format.pdf. Accessed February 8, 2014.
-
13.
Sultana R, Mondal UK, Rimi NA, Unicomb L, Winch PJ, Nahar N, Luby SP, 2013. An improved tool for household faeces management in rural Bangladeshi communities. Trop Med Int Health 18: 854–860.
-
14.
Luby SP, Agboatwalla M, Feikin DR, Painter J, Billhimer W, Altaf A, Hoekstra RM, 2005. Effect of handwashing on child health: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 366: 225–233.
-
15.
Greene LE, Freeman MC, Akoko D, Saboori S, Moe C, Rheingans R, 2012. Impact of a school-based hygiene promotion and sanitation intervention on pupil hand contamination in western Kenya: a cluster randomized trial. Am J Trop Med Hyg 87: 385–393.
-
16.
Devine J, 2010. Beyond tippy-taps: the role of enabling products in scaling up and sustaining handwashing. Waterlines 29: 304–314.
-
17.
Biran A, 2011. Enabling Technologies for Handwashing with Soap: A Case Study on the Tippy-Tap in Uganda. World Bank Water and Sanitation Program. Available at: https://wsp.org/sites/wsp.org/files/publications/uganda-tippy-tap-hwws.pdf. Accessed March 6, 2014.
-
18.
Briscoe C, Aboud F, 2012. Behaviour change communication targeting four health behaviours in developing countries: a review of change techniques. Soc Sci Med 75: 612–621.
-
19.
Biran A, Schmidt W-P, Varadharajan KS, Rajaraman D, Kumar R, Greenland K, Gopalan B, Aunger R, Curtis V, 2014. Effect of a behaviour-change intervention on handwashing with soap in India (SuperAmma): a cluster-randomised trial. Lancet Glob Health 2: e145–e154.
-
20.
Arimond M, Zeilani M, Jungjohann S, Brown KH, Ashorn P, Allen LH, Dewey KG, 2013. Considerations in developing lipid-based nutrient supplements for prevention of undernutrition: experience from the International Lipid-Based Nutrient Supplements (iLiNS) Project. Matern Child Nutr, doi:10.1111/mcn.12049.
-
21.
Ahuja A, Kremer M, Zwane AP, 2010. Providing safe water: evidence from randomized evaluations. Annu Rev Resour Econ 2: 237–256.
-
22.
Kotloff KL, Nataro JP, Blackwelder WC, Nasrin D, Farag TH, Panchalingam S, Wu Y, Sow SO, Sur D, Breiman RF, Faruque AS, Zaidi AK, Saha D, Alonso PL, Tamboura B, Sanogo D, Onwuchekwa U, Manna B, Ramamurthy T, Kanungo S, Ochieng JB, Omore R, Oundo JO, Hossain A, Das SK, Ahmed S, Qureshi S, Quadri F, Adegbola RA, Antonio M, Hossain MJ, Akinsola A, Mandomando I, Nhampossa T, Acácio S, Biswas K, O'Reilly CE, Mintz ED, Berkeley LY, Muhsen K, Sommerfelt H, Robins-Browne RM, Levine MM, 2013. Burden and aetiology of diarrhoeal disease in infants and young children in developing countries (the Global Enteric Multicenter Study, GEMS): a prospective, case-control study. Lancet 382: 209–222.
-
23.
Fishbein M, Yzer MC, 2003. Using theory to design effective health behavior interventions. Commun Theory 13: 164–183.
-
24.
Bandura A, 1986. Social Foundations of Thought and Action. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
-
25.
US Department of Health and Human Services, 2005. Theory at a Glance: A Guide for Health Promotion Practice. Ed National Institutes of Health NIH Publication 05-3896. Washington, DC: National Institutes of Health (NIH).
-
26.
Zwane AP, Zinman J, Dusen EV, Pariente W, Null C, Miguel E, Kremer M, Karlan D, Hornbeck R, Gine X, Duflo E, Devoto F, Crepon B, Banerjee A, 2011. Being surveyed can change later behavior and related parameter estimates. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 108: 1821–1826.
| Past two years | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 1923 | 1256 | 38 |
| Full Text Views | 3006 | 10 | 0 |
| PDF Downloads | 203 | 10 | 0 |