ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1.
Gage KL, Kosoy MY, 2005. Natural history of plague: perspectives from more than a century of research. Annu Rev Entomol 50: 505–528.
-
2.
Tikhomirov E, 1999. Epidemiology and distribution of plague. Dennis DT, Gage KL, Gratz N, Poland JD, Tikhomirov E, eds. Plague Manual: Epidemiology, Distribution, Surveillance and Control. Geneva: World Health Organization, 11–37.
-
3.
Crook LD, Tempest B, 1992. Plague. A clinical review of 27 cases. Arch Intern Med 152: 1253–1256.
-
4.
Duplantier JM, 2012. Surveillance and control of plague. Carniel E, Hinnebusch BJ, eds. Yersina: Systems Biology and Control. Norfolk, UK: Caister Academic Press, 183–199.
-
5.
Davis S, Begon M, De Bruyn L, Ageyev VS, Klassovskiy NL, Pole SB, Viljugrein H, Stenseth NC, Leirs H, 2004. Predictive thresholds for plague in Kazakhstan. Science 304: 736–738.
-
6.
Eisen RJ, Gage KL, 2009. Adaptive strategies of Yersinia pestis to persist during inter-epizootic and epizootic periods. Vet Res 40: 1.
-
7.
Pham HV, Dang DT, Tran Minh NN, Nguyen ND, Nguyen TV, 2009. Correlates of environmental factors and human plague: an ecological study in Vietnam. Int J Epidemiol 38: 1634–1641.
-
8.
Gratz NG, 1999. Control of plague transmission. Plague Manual: Epidemiology, Distribution, Surveillance and Control. Geneva: World Health Organization, 97–134.
-
9.
Gage KL, 1999. Plague surveillance. Plague Manual: Epidemiology, Distribution, Surveillance and Control. Geneva: World Health Organization, 135–165.
-
10.
World Health Organization, 2010. Human plague: review of regional morbidity and mortality, 2004–2009. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 85: 40–45.
-
11.
Eisen RJ, Griffith KS, Borchert JN, MacMillan K, Apangu T, Owor N, Acayo S, Acidri R, Zielinski-Gutierrez E, Winters AM, Enscore RE, Schriefer ME, Beard CB, Gage KL, Mead PS, 2010. Assessing human risk of exposure to plague bacteria in northwestern Uganda based on remotely sensed predictors. Am J Trop Med Hyg 82: 904–911.
-
12.
MacMillan K, Monaghan AJ, Apangu T, Griffith KS, Mead PS, Acayo S, Acidri R, Moore SM, Mpanga JT, Enscore RE, Gage KL, Eisen RJ, 2012. Climate predictors of the spatial distribution of human plague cases in the West Nile region of Uganda. Am J Trop Med Hyg 86: 514–523.
-
13.
Moore SM, Monaghan A, Griffith KS, Apangu T, Mead PS, Eisen RJ, 2012. Improvement of disease prediction and modeling through the use of meteorological ensembles: human plague in Uganda. PLoS ONE 7: e44431.
-
14.
Winters AM, Staples JE, Ogen-Odoi A, Mead PS, Griffith K, Owor N, Babi N, Enscore RE, Eisen L, Gage KL, Eisen RJ, 2009. Spatial risk models for human plague in the West Nile Region of Uganda. Am J Trop Med Hyg 80: 1014–1022.
-
15.
Lakwo A, Cwinyaai W, Abdallay O, 2008. West Nile Profiling. Nebbi, Uganda: Agency for Accelerated Regional Development.
-
16.
Monaghan AJ, MacMillan K, Moore SM, Mead PS, Hayden MH, Eisen RJ, 2012. A regional climatography to support human plague modeling in the West Nile, Uganda. J Appl Meteorol Climatol 51: 1201–1221.
-
17.
Eisen RJ, Borchert JN, Mpanga JT, Atiku LA, MacMillan K, Boegler KA, Montenieri JA, Monaghan A, Gage KL, 2012. Flea diversity as an element for persistence of plague bacteria in an East African plague focus. PLoS ONE 7: e35598.
-
18.
Chu MC, 2000. Laboratory Manual of Plague Diagnostics. Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and Geneva: World Health Organization, 129.
-
19.
Borchert JN, Eisen RJ, Atiku LA, Delorey MJ, Mpanga JT, Babi N, Enscore RE, Gage KL, 2012. Efficacy of indoor residual spraying using lambda-cyhalothrin for controlling nontarget vector fleas (Siphonaptera) on commensal rats in a plague endemic region of northwestern Uganda. J Med Entomol 49: 1027–1034.
-
20.
Delany MJ, 1975. The Rodents of Uganda. Kettering, UK: The George Press.
-
21.
Haselbarth E, 1966. Siphonaptera. Zumpt F, ed. The Arthropod Parasites of Vertebrates in Africa South of the Sahara (Ethiopia region). Johannesburg, South Africa: South African Institute of Medical Research, 117–212.
-
22.
Hopkins GH, 1947. Annotated and illustrated keys to the known fleas of east Africa. Ugandan J 11: 133–191.
-
23.
Hopkins GH, Rothschild M, 1966. An Illustrated Catalogue of the Rothschild Collection of Fleas (Siphonaptera) in the British Museum (Natural History): Hystrichopsyllidae. London: Ballantyne and Company.
-
24.
Smit FG, 1973. Siphonaptera (Fleas). Smith KG, ed. Insects and other Arthropods of Medical Importance. London: British Museum of Natural History, 325–371.
-
25.
Nowak RM, 1990. Walker's Mammals of the World, volume II, 6th edition. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1936 pp.
-
26.
Simpson EH, 1949. Measurements of diversity. Nature 163: 688.
-
27.
Bacot AW, Martin CJ, 1914. Observations on the mechanism of the transmission of plague by fleas. J Hyg 13 (Plague Suppl III): 423–439.
-
28.
Davis DHS, Heisch RB, McNeil D, Meyer KF, 1968. Serological survey of plague in rodents and other small mammals in Kenya. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 62: 838–861.
-
29.
Eisen RJ, Wilder AP, Bearden SW, Montenieri JA, Gage KL, 2007. Early-phase transmission of Yersinia pestis by unblocked Xenoopsylla cheopis (Siphonaptera: pulicidae) is as efficient as transmission by blocked fleas. J Med Entomol 44: 678–682.
-
30.
Gratz NG, 1999. Rodent reservoirs and flea vectors of natural foci of plague. Dennis DT, Gage KL, Gratz NG, Poland JD, Tikhomirov E, eds. Plauge Manual: Epidemiology, Distribution, Surveillance and Control. Geneva: World Health Organization, 63–96.
-
31.
Kilonzo BS, 1976. A survey of rodents and their flea ectoparasites in north-eastern Tanzania. E African J Med Res 3: 117–125.
-
32.
Pollitzer R, 1954. Plague. World Health Organization Monograph Series No. 22. Geneva: World Health Organization.
-
33.
Velimirovic B, Zikmund V, Herman J, 1969. Plague in the Lake Edwards focus; the Democratic Republic of Congo, 1960–1966. Z Tropenmed Parasitol 20: 373–387.
-
34.
Gould LH, Pape J, Ettestad P, Griffith KS, Mead PS, 2008. Dog-associated risk factors for human plague. Zoonoses Publ Hlth 55: 448–454.
-
35.
Mann JM, Martone WJ, Boyce JM, Kaufmann AF, Barnes AM, Weber NS, 1979. Endemic human plague in New Mexico: risk factors associated with infection. J Infect Dis 140: 397–401.
-
36.
MacMillan K, Enscore RE, Ogen-Odoi A, Borchert JN, Babi N, Amatre G, Atiku LA, Mead PS, Gage KL, Eisen RJ, 2011. Landscape and residential variables associated with plague-endemic villages in the West Nile region of Uganda. Am J Trop Med Hyg 84: 435–442.
-
37.
Laudisoit A, Neerinckx S, Makundi RH, Leirs H, Krasnov BR, 2009. Are local plague endemicity and ecological characteristics of vectors and reservoirs related? A case study in north-east Tanzania. Curr Zool 55: 200–211.
-
38.
Amatre G, Babi N, Enscore RE, Ogen-Odoi A, Atiku LA, Akol A, Gage KL, Eisen RJ, 2009. Flea diversity and infestation prevalence on rodents in a plague-endemic region of Uganda. Am J Trop Med Hyg 81: 718–724.
-
39.
Orach SO, 2003. Plague Outbreaks: the Gender and Age Perspective in Okoro County, Nebbi District, Uganda. Nebbi, Uganda: Agency for Accelerated Regional Development.
-
40.
Davis S, Trapman P, Leirs H, Begon M, Heesterbeek JAP, 2008. The abundance threshold for plague as a critical percolation phenomenon. Nature 454: 634–637.
-
41.
Msangi AS, 1975. The surveillance of rodent populations in east Africa in relation to plague endemicity. Dar Salam University Sci J 1: 8–20.
-
42.
Njunwa KJ, Mwaiko GL, Kilonzo BS, Mhina JI, 1989. Seasonal patterns of rodents, fleas and plague status in the Western Usambara Mountains, Tanzania. Med Vet Entomol 3: 17–22.
-
43.
Kilonzo BS, Mvena ZSK, Machangu RS, Mbise TJ, 1997. Preliminary observations on factors responsible for long persistence and continued outbreaks of plague in Lushoto district, Tanzania. Acta Trop 68: 215–227.
-
44.
Belmain SR, Meyer AN, Penicela L, Xavier R, Jones SC, Zhai J, Robinson WH, eds., 2002. Population management of rodent pests through intensive trapping inside rural households in Mozambique. Jones SC, Zhai J, Robinson WH, eds. Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference on Urban Pests, 421–428.
-
45.
Kingdon J, 1974. East African Mammals: An Atlas of Evolution in Africa: Hares and Rodents. London: The University of Chicago Press.
-
46.
Eisen RJ, Enscore RE, Atiku LA, Zielinski-Gutierrez E, Mpanga JT, Kajik E, Andama V, Mungujakisa C, Tibo E, MacMillan K, Borchert JN, Gage KL, 2013. Evidence that rodent control strategies ought to be improved to enhance food security and reduce the risk of rodent-borne illnesses within subsistence farming villages in the plague-endemic West Nile region, Uganda. Int J Pest Manage 59: 259–270.
-
47.
Hirst LF, 1953. The Conquest of Plague: A Study of the Evolution of Epidemiology. Oxford, UK: Carendon Press.
-
48.
Laudisoit A, Leirs H, Makundi RH, Van Dongen S, Davis S, Neerinckx S, Deckers J, Libois R, 2007. Plague and the human flea, Tanzania. Emerg Infect Dis 13: 687–693.
-
49.
Rust MK, Dryden MW, 1997. The biology, ecology, and management of the cat flea. Annu Rev Entomol 42: 451–473.
-
50.
Eisen RJ, Borchert JN, Holmes JL, Amatre G, Van Wyk K, Enscore RE, Babi N, Atiku LA, Wilder AP, Vetter SM, Bearden SW, Montenieri JA, Gage KL, 2008. Early-phase transmission of Yersinia pestis by cat fleas (Ctenocephalides felis) and their potential role as vectors in a plague-endemic region of Uganda. Am J Trop Med Hyg 78: 949–956.
-
51.
Graham CB, Borchert JN, Black WC, Atiku LA, Mpanga JT, Boegler KA, Moore SM, Gage KL, Eisen RJ, 2013. Blood meal identification in off-host cat fleas (Ctenocephalides felis) from a plague-endemic region of Uganda. Am J Trop Med Hyg 88: 381–389.
| Past two years | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 2014 | 1815 | 24 |
| Full Text Views | 391 | 13 | 0 |
| PDF Downloads | 145 | 15 | 0 |
Identification of Risk Factors for Plague in the West Nile Region of Uganda
Rebecca J. Eisen
Rebecca J. Eisen
Bacterial Diseases Branch, Division of Vector Borne Diseases, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado; Uganda Virus Research Institute, Entebbe, Uganda
Search for other papers by Rebecca J. Eisen in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by Rebecca J. Eisen in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Katherine MacMillan
Katherine MacMillan
Bacterial Diseases Branch, Division of Vector Borne Diseases, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado; Uganda Virus Research Institute, Entebbe, Uganda
Search for other papers by Katherine MacMillan in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by Katherine MacMillan in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Linda A. Atiku
Linda A. Atiku
Bacterial Diseases Branch, Division of Vector Borne Diseases, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado; Uganda Virus Research Institute, Entebbe, Uganda
Search for other papers by Linda A. Atiku in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by Linda A. Atiku in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Joseph T. Mpanga
Joseph T. Mpanga
Bacterial Diseases Branch, Division of Vector Borne Diseases, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado; Uganda Virus Research Institute, Entebbe, Uganda
Search for other papers by Joseph T. Mpanga in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by Joseph T. Mpanga in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Emily Zielinski-Gutierrez
Emily Zielinski-Gutierrez
Bacterial Diseases Branch, Division of Vector Borne Diseases, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado; Uganda Virus Research Institute, Entebbe, Uganda
Search for other papers by Emily Zielinski-Gutierrez in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by Emily Zielinski-Gutierrez in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Christine B. Graham
Christine B. Graham
Bacterial Diseases Branch, Division of Vector Borne Diseases, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado; Uganda Virus Research Institute, Entebbe, Uganda
Search for other papers by Christine B. Graham in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by Christine B. Graham in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Karen A. Boegler
Karen A. Boegler
Bacterial Diseases Branch, Division of Vector Borne Diseases, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado; Uganda Virus Research Institute, Entebbe, Uganda
Search for other papers by Karen A. Boegler in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by Karen A. Boegler in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Russell E. Enscore
Russell E. Enscore
Bacterial Diseases Branch, Division of Vector Borne Diseases, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado; Uganda Virus Research Institute, Entebbe, Uganda
Search for other papers by Russell E. Enscore in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by Russell E. Enscore in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Kenneth L. Gage
Kenneth L. Gage
Bacterial Diseases Branch, Division of Vector Borne Diseases, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado; Uganda Virus Research Institute, Entebbe, Uganda
Search for other papers by Kenneth L. Gage in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by Kenneth L. Gage in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Plague is an often fatal, primarily flea-borne rodent-associated zoonosis caused by Yersinia pestis. We sought to identify risk factors for plague by comparing villages with and without a history of human plague cases within a model-defined plague focus in the West Nile Region of Uganda. Although rat (Rattus rattus) abundance was similar inside huts within case and control villages, contact rates between rats and humans (as measured by reported rat bites) and host-seeking flea loads were higher in case villages. In addition, compared with persons in control villages, persons in case villages more often reported sleeping on reed or straw mats, storing food in huts where persons sleep, owning dogs and allowing them into huts where persons sleep, storing garbage inside or near huts, and cooking in huts where persons sleep. Compared with persons in case villages, persons in control villages more commonly reported replacing thatch roofing, and growing coffee, tomatoes, onions, and melons in agricultural plots adjacent to their homesteads. Rodent and flea control practices, knowledge of plague, distance to clinics, and most care-seeking practices were similar between persons in case villages and persons in control villages. Our findings reinforce existing plague prevention recommendations and point to potentially advantageous local interventions.
Author Notes
Financial support: This study was supported in part by the United States Agency for International Development Emerging Pandemic Threat Program.
Authors' addresses: Rebecca J. Eisen, Katherine MacMillan, Emily Zielinski-Gutierrez, Christine B. Graham, Karen A. Boegler, Russell E. Enscore, and Kenneth L. Gage, Bacterial Diseases Branch, Division of Vector Borne Diseases, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, CO, E-mails: dyn2@cdc.gov, iky4@cdc.gov, ezb0@cdc.gov, hyb4@cdc.gov, kje5@cdc.gov, renscore@cdc.gov, and klg0@cdc.gov. Linda A. Atiku and Joseph T. Mpanga, Plague Section, Uganda Virus Research Institute, Entebbe, Uganda, E-mails: l.atikupraise@yahoo.com and joe1ug@msn.com.
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1.
Gage KL, Kosoy MY, 2005. Natural history of plague: perspectives from more than a century of research. Annu Rev Entomol 50: 505–528.
-
2.
Tikhomirov E, 1999. Epidemiology and distribution of plague. Dennis DT, Gage KL, Gratz N, Poland JD, Tikhomirov E, eds. Plague Manual: Epidemiology, Distribution, Surveillance and Control. Geneva: World Health Organization, 11–37.
-
3.
Crook LD, Tempest B, 1992. Plague. A clinical review of 27 cases. Arch Intern Med 152: 1253–1256.
-
4.
Duplantier JM, 2012. Surveillance and control of plague. Carniel E, Hinnebusch BJ, eds. Yersina: Systems Biology and Control. Norfolk, UK: Caister Academic Press, 183–199.
-
5.
Davis S, Begon M, De Bruyn L, Ageyev VS, Klassovskiy NL, Pole SB, Viljugrein H, Stenseth NC, Leirs H, 2004. Predictive thresholds for plague in Kazakhstan. Science 304: 736–738.
-
6.
Eisen RJ, Gage KL, 2009. Adaptive strategies of Yersinia pestis to persist during inter-epizootic and epizootic periods. Vet Res 40: 1.
-
7.
Pham HV, Dang DT, Tran Minh NN, Nguyen ND, Nguyen TV, 2009. Correlates of environmental factors and human plague: an ecological study in Vietnam. Int J Epidemiol 38: 1634–1641.
-
8.
Gratz NG, 1999. Control of plague transmission. Plague Manual: Epidemiology, Distribution, Surveillance and Control. Geneva: World Health Organization, 97–134.
-
9.
Gage KL, 1999. Plague surveillance. Plague Manual: Epidemiology, Distribution, Surveillance and Control. Geneva: World Health Organization, 135–165.
-
10.
World Health Organization, 2010. Human plague: review of regional morbidity and mortality, 2004–2009. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 85: 40–45.
-
11.
Eisen RJ, Griffith KS, Borchert JN, MacMillan K, Apangu T, Owor N, Acayo S, Acidri R, Zielinski-Gutierrez E, Winters AM, Enscore RE, Schriefer ME, Beard CB, Gage KL, Mead PS, 2010. Assessing human risk of exposure to plague bacteria in northwestern Uganda based on remotely sensed predictors. Am J Trop Med Hyg 82: 904–911.
-
12.
MacMillan K, Monaghan AJ, Apangu T, Griffith KS, Mead PS, Acayo S, Acidri R, Moore SM, Mpanga JT, Enscore RE, Gage KL, Eisen RJ, 2012. Climate predictors of the spatial distribution of human plague cases in the West Nile region of Uganda. Am J Trop Med Hyg 86: 514–523.
-
13.
Moore SM, Monaghan A, Griffith KS, Apangu T, Mead PS, Eisen RJ, 2012. Improvement of disease prediction and modeling through the use of meteorological ensembles: human plague in Uganda. PLoS ONE 7: e44431.
-
14.
Winters AM, Staples JE, Ogen-Odoi A, Mead PS, Griffith K, Owor N, Babi N, Enscore RE, Eisen L, Gage KL, Eisen RJ, 2009. Spatial risk models for human plague in the West Nile Region of Uganda. Am J Trop Med Hyg 80: 1014–1022.
-
15.
Lakwo A, Cwinyaai W, Abdallay O, 2008. West Nile Profiling. Nebbi, Uganda: Agency for Accelerated Regional Development.
-
16.
Monaghan AJ, MacMillan K, Moore SM, Mead PS, Hayden MH, Eisen RJ, 2012. A regional climatography to support human plague modeling in the West Nile, Uganda. J Appl Meteorol Climatol 51: 1201–1221.
-
17.
Eisen RJ, Borchert JN, Mpanga JT, Atiku LA, MacMillan K, Boegler KA, Montenieri JA, Monaghan A, Gage KL, 2012. Flea diversity as an element for persistence of plague bacteria in an East African plague focus. PLoS ONE 7: e35598.
-
18.
Chu MC, 2000. Laboratory Manual of Plague Diagnostics. Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and Geneva: World Health Organization, 129.
-
19.
Borchert JN, Eisen RJ, Atiku LA, Delorey MJ, Mpanga JT, Babi N, Enscore RE, Gage KL, 2012. Efficacy of indoor residual spraying using lambda-cyhalothrin for controlling nontarget vector fleas (Siphonaptera) on commensal rats in a plague endemic region of northwestern Uganda. J Med Entomol 49: 1027–1034.
-
20.
Delany MJ, 1975. The Rodents of Uganda. Kettering, UK: The George Press.
-
21.
Haselbarth E, 1966. Siphonaptera. Zumpt F, ed. The Arthropod Parasites of Vertebrates in Africa South of the Sahara (Ethiopia region). Johannesburg, South Africa: South African Institute of Medical Research, 117–212.
-
22.
Hopkins GH, 1947. Annotated and illustrated keys to the known fleas of east Africa. Ugandan J 11: 133–191.
-
23.
Hopkins GH, Rothschild M, 1966. An Illustrated Catalogue of the Rothschild Collection of Fleas (Siphonaptera) in the British Museum (Natural History): Hystrichopsyllidae. London: Ballantyne and Company.
-
24.
Smit FG, 1973. Siphonaptera (Fleas). Smith KG, ed. Insects and other Arthropods of Medical Importance. London: British Museum of Natural History, 325–371.
-
25.
Nowak RM, 1990. Walker's Mammals of the World, volume II, 6th edition. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1936 pp.
-
26.
Simpson EH, 1949. Measurements of diversity. Nature 163: 688.
-
27.
Bacot AW, Martin CJ, 1914. Observations on the mechanism of the transmission of plague by fleas. J Hyg 13 (Plague Suppl III): 423–439.
-
28.
Davis DHS, Heisch RB, McNeil D, Meyer KF, 1968. Serological survey of plague in rodents and other small mammals in Kenya. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 62: 838–861.
-
29.
Eisen RJ, Wilder AP, Bearden SW, Montenieri JA, Gage KL, 2007. Early-phase transmission of Yersinia pestis by unblocked Xenoopsylla cheopis (Siphonaptera: pulicidae) is as efficient as transmission by blocked fleas. J Med Entomol 44: 678–682.
-
30.
Gratz NG, 1999. Rodent reservoirs and flea vectors of natural foci of plague. Dennis DT, Gage KL, Gratz NG, Poland JD, Tikhomirov E, eds. Plauge Manual: Epidemiology, Distribution, Surveillance and Control. Geneva: World Health Organization, 63–96.
-
31.
Kilonzo BS, 1976. A survey of rodents and their flea ectoparasites in north-eastern Tanzania. E African J Med Res 3: 117–125.
-
32.
Pollitzer R, 1954. Plague. World Health Organization Monograph Series No. 22. Geneva: World Health Organization.
-
33.
Velimirovic B, Zikmund V, Herman J, 1969. Plague in the Lake Edwards focus; the Democratic Republic of Congo, 1960–1966. Z Tropenmed Parasitol 20: 373–387.
-
34.
Gould LH, Pape J, Ettestad P, Griffith KS, Mead PS, 2008. Dog-associated risk factors for human plague. Zoonoses Publ Hlth 55: 448–454.
-
35.
Mann JM, Martone WJ, Boyce JM, Kaufmann AF, Barnes AM, Weber NS, 1979. Endemic human plague in New Mexico: risk factors associated with infection. J Infect Dis 140: 397–401.
-
36.
MacMillan K, Enscore RE, Ogen-Odoi A, Borchert JN, Babi N, Amatre G, Atiku LA, Mead PS, Gage KL, Eisen RJ, 2011. Landscape and residential variables associated with plague-endemic villages in the West Nile region of Uganda. Am J Trop Med Hyg 84: 435–442.
-
37.
Laudisoit A, Neerinckx S, Makundi RH, Leirs H, Krasnov BR, 2009. Are local plague endemicity and ecological characteristics of vectors and reservoirs related? A case study in north-east Tanzania. Curr Zool 55: 200–211.
-
38.
Amatre G, Babi N, Enscore RE, Ogen-Odoi A, Atiku LA, Akol A, Gage KL, Eisen RJ, 2009. Flea diversity and infestation prevalence on rodents in a plague-endemic region of Uganda. Am J Trop Med Hyg 81: 718–724.
-
39.
Orach SO, 2003. Plague Outbreaks: the Gender and Age Perspective in Okoro County, Nebbi District, Uganda. Nebbi, Uganda: Agency for Accelerated Regional Development.
-
40.
Davis S, Trapman P, Leirs H, Begon M, Heesterbeek JAP, 2008. The abundance threshold for plague as a critical percolation phenomenon. Nature 454: 634–637.
-
41.
Msangi AS, 1975. The surveillance of rodent populations in east Africa in relation to plague endemicity. Dar Salam University Sci J 1: 8–20.
-
42.
Njunwa KJ, Mwaiko GL, Kilonzo BS, Mhina JI, 1989. Seasonal patterns of rodents, fleas and plague status in the Western Usambara Mountains, Tanzania. Med Vet Entomol 3: 17–22.
-
43.
Kilonzo BS, Mvena ZSK, Machangu RS, Mbise TJ, 1997. Preliminary observations on factors responsible for long persistence and continued outbreaks of plague in Lushoto district, Tanzania. Acta Trop 68: 215–227.
-
44.
Belmain SR, Meyer AN, Penicela L, Xavier R, Jones SC, Zhai J, Robinson WH, eds., 2002. Population management of rodent pests through intensive trapping inside rural households in Mozambique. Jones SC, Zhai J, Robinson WH, eds. Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference on Urban Pests, 421–428.
-
45.
Kingdon J, 1974. East African Mammals: An Atlas of Evolution in Africa: Hares and Rodents. London: The University of Chicago Press.
-
46.
Eisen RJ, Enscore RE, Atiku LA, Zielinski-Gutierrez E, Mpanga JT, Kajik E, Andama V, Mungujakisa C, Tibo E, MacMillan K, Borchert JN, Gage KL, 2013. Evidence that rodent control strategies ought to be improved to enhance food security and reduce the risk of rodent-borne illnesses within subsistence farming villages in the plague-endemic West Nile region, Uganda. Int J Pest Manage 59: 259–270.
-
47.
Hirst LF, 1953. The Conquest of Plague: A Study of the Evolution of Epidemiology. Oxford, UK: Carendon Press.
-
48.
Laudisoit A, Leirs H, Makundi RH, Van Dongen S, Davis S, Neerinckx S, Deckers J, Libois R, 2007. Plague and the human flea, Tanzania. Emerg Infect Dis 13: 687–693.
-
49.
Rust MK, Dryden MW, 1997. The biology, ecology, and management of the cat flea. Annu Rev Entomol 42: 451–473.
-
50.
Eisen RJ, Borchert JN, Holmes JL, Amatre G, Van Wyk K, Enscore RE, Babi N, Atiku LA, Wilder AP, Vetter SM, Bearden SW, Montenieri JA, Gage KL, 2008. Early-phase transmission of Yersinia pestis by cat fleas (Ctenocephalides felis) and their potential role as vectors in a plague-endemic region of Uganda. Am J Trop Med Hyg 78: 949–956.
-
51.
Graham CB, Borchert JN, Black WC, Atiku LA, Mpanga JT, Boegler KA, Moore SM, Gage KL, Eisen RJ, 2013. Blood meal identification in off-host cat fleas (Ctenocephalides felis) from a plague-endemic region of Uganda. Am J Trop Med Hyg 88: 381–389.
| Past two years | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 2014 | 1815 | 24 |
| Full Text Views | 391 | 13 | 0 |
| PDF Downloads | 145 | 15 | 0 |