Author:
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1.
Crompton DW, 1999. How much human helminthiasis is there in the world? J Parasitol 85: 397–403.
-
2.
Hotez PJ, Bundy DAP, Beegle K, Brooker S, Drake L, de Silva N, Montresor A, Engels D, Jukes M, Chitsulo L, Chow J, Laxminarayan R, Michaud CM, Bethony J, Correa–Oliveira R, Xiao SH, Fenwick A, Savioli L, 2006. Helminth Infections: Soil-Transmitted Helminth Infections and Schistosomiasis. Disease Control Priorities in Developing Countries. New York: Oxford University Press, 467–482.
-
3.
Dickson R, Awasthi S, Williamson P, Demellweek C, Garner P, 2000. Effects of treatment for intestinal helminth infection on growth and cognitive performance in children: systematic review of randomized trials. BMJ 320: 1697–1701.
-
4.
Sur D, Saha DR, Manna B, Rajendran K, Bhattacharya SK, 2005. Periodic deworming with albendazole and its impact on growth status and diarrhoeal incidence among children in an urban slum of India. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 99: 261–267.
-
5.
Taylor-Robinson DC, Jones AP, Garner P, 2007. Deworming drugs for treating soil-transmitted intestinal worms in children: effects on growth and school performance. Cochrane Database Syst Rev (4): CD000371.
-
6.
Gulani A, Nagpal J, Osmond C, Sachdev HP, 2007. Effect of administration of intestinal anthelmintic drugs on hemoglobin: systematic review of randomized controlled trials. BMJ 334: 1095.
-
7.
Smith JL, Brooker S, 2010. Impact of hookworm infection and deworming on anemia in non-pregnant populations: a systematic review. Trop Med Int Health 15: 776–795.
-
8.
Keiser J, Utzinger J, 2008. Efficacy of current drugs against soil-transmitted helminth infections: systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA 299: 1937–1948.
-
9.
Miguel E, Kremer M, 2004. Worms: identifying impacts on education and health in the presence of treatment externalities. Econometrica 72: 159–217.
-
10.
Bundy DAP, Wong MS, Lewis LL, Horton J, 1990. Control of geohelminths by delivery of targeted chemotherapy through schools. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 84: 115–120.
-
11.
Jia T-W, Melville S, Utzinger J, King CH, Zhou X-N, 2012. Soil-transmitted helminth reinfection after drug treatment: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 6: e1621.
-
12.
Yap P, Du Z-W, Wu F-W, Jiang J-Y, Chen R, Zhou X-N, Hattendorf J, Utzinger J, Steinmann P, 2013. Rapid re-infection with soil-transmitted helminths after triple-dose albendazole treatment of school-aged children in Yunnan, People's Republic of China. Am J Trop Med Hyg 89: 23–31.
-
13.
Asaolu SO, Ofoezie IE, 2003. The role of health education and sanitation in the control of helminth infections. Acta Trop 86: 283–294.
-
14.
Henry FJ, 1988. Reinfection with Ascaris lumbricoides after chemotherapy: a comparative study in three villages with varying sanitation. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 82: 460–464.
-
15.
WHO, UNICEF, 2010. Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-Water: 2010 Update. WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation. Geneva: WHO.
-
16.
UNICEF, 2009. Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Annual Report. New York: UNICEF.
-
17.
Ziegelbauer K, Speich B, Mäusezahl D, Bos R, Keiser J, Utzinger J, 2012. Effect of sanitation on soil-transmitted helminth infection: systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS Med 9: e1001162.
-
18.
Freeman MC, Greene LE, Dreibelbis R, Saboori S, Muga R, Brumback B, Rheingans R, 2012. Assessing the impact of a school-based water treatment, hygiene, and sanitation program on pupil absence in Nyanza Province, Kenya: a cluster-randomized trial. Trop Med Int Health 17: 380–391.
-
19.
Republic of Kenya Ministry of Education, 2008. National School Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Promotion Strategy 2008–2015. Nairobi.
-
20.
Tukahebwa EM, Vennervald BJ, Nuwaha F, Kabatereine NB, Magnussen P, 2013. Comparative efficacy of one versus two doses of praziquantel on cure rate of Schistosoma mansoni infection and re-infection in Mayuge District, Uganda. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 107: 397–404.
-
21.
Moraes LR, Cancio JA, Cairncross S, 2004. Impact of drainage and sewerage on intestinal nematode infections in poor urban areas in Salvador, Brazil. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 98: 197–204.
-
22.
Katz N, Chavez A, Pellegrino J, 1972. A simple device for quantitative stool thick-smear technique in Schistosomiasis mansoni. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo 14: 397–400.
-
23.
WHO, 1991. Basic Laboratory Methods in Medical Parasitology. Geneva: World Health Organization.
-
24.
Stothard JR, Imison E, French MD, Sousa-Figueiredo JC, Khamis IS, Rollinson D, 2008. Soil-transmitted helminthiasis among mothers and their pre-school children on Unguja Island, Zanzibar with emphasis upon ascariasis. Parasitology 135: 1447–1455.
-
25.
Luoba AI, Wenzel Geissler P, Estambale B, Ouma JH, Alusala D, Ayah R, Mwaniki D, Magnussen P, Friis H, 2005. Earth-eating and reinfection with intestinal helminths among pregnant and lactating women in western Kenya. Trop Med Int Health 10: 220–227.
-
26.
Alemu A, Atnafu A, Addis Z, Shiferaw Y, Teklu T, Mathewos B, Birhan W, Gebretsadik S, Gelaw B, 2011. Soil transmitted helminths and Schistosoma mansoni infections among school children in Zarima town, northwest Ethiopia. BMC Infect Dis 11: 189.
-
27.
Vyas S, Kumaranayake L, 2006. Constructing socio-economic status indices: how to use principal components analysis. Health Policy Plan 21: 459–468.
-
28.
Gwatkin DR, Rustein S, Johnson K, Suliman E, Wagstaff A, Amouzou A, 2007. Socio-economic differences in health, nutrition, and population: Kenya. Country Reports on HPN and Poverty. Washington, DC: The World Bank.
-
29.
Anderson RM, Schad GA, 1985. Hookworm burdens and fecal egg counts: an analysis of the biological basis of variation. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 79: 812–825.
-
30.
Anderson RM, May RM, 1991. Infectious Diseases of Humans. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
-
31.
Brooker S, Bundy DA, 2008. Soil-transmitted helminths (geohelminths). Cook GC, Zumla AI, eds. Manson's Tropical Diseases. London: Elsevier, 1515–1548.
-
32.
Humphries D, Mosites E, Otchere J, Twum WA, Woo L, Jones-Sanpei H, Harrison LM, Bungiro RD, Benham-Pyle B, Bimi L, Edoh D, Bosompem K, Wilson M, Cappello M, 2011. Epidemiology of hookworm infection in Kintampo North Municipality, Ghana: patterns of malaria coinfection, anemia, and albendazole treatment failure. Am J Trop Med Hyg 84: 792–800.
-
33.
Hayes R, Moulton LH, Morgan BTJ, 2009. Cluster randomized controlled trials. New York: Chapman and Hall/CRC Press.
-
34.
Brooker S, Bethony J, Hotez PJ, 2004. Human hookworm infection in the 21st century. Adv Parasitol 58: 197–288.
-
35.
Gunawardena GS, Karunaweera ND, Ismail MM, 2005. Effects of climatic, socio-economic and behavioral factors on the transmission of hookworm (Necator americanus) on two low-country plantations in Sri Lanka. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 99: 601–609.
-
36.
Traub RJ, Robertson ID, Irwin P, Mencke N, Andrew Thompson RC, 2004. The prevalence, intensities and risk factors associated with geohelminth infection in tea-growing communities of Assam, India. Trop Med Int Health 9: 688–701.
-
37.
Knopp S, Mohammed KA, Stothard JR, Khamis IS, Rollinson D, Marti H, Utzinger J, 2010. Patterns and risk factors of helminthiasis and anemia in a rural and a peri-urban community in Zanzibar, in the context of helminth control programs. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 4: e681.
-
38.
Gungoren B, Latipov R, Regallet G, Musabaev E, 2007. Effect of hygiene promotion on the risk of reinfection rate of intestinal parasites in children in rural Uzbekistan. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 101: 564–569.
-
39.
Kanoa B, George E, Abed Y, Al-Hindi A, 2006. Evaluation of the relationship between intestinal parasitic infection and health education among school children in Gaza City, Beit-Lahia Village and Jabalia Refugee Camp, Gaza Strip, Palestine. The Islamic University Journal 14: 39–49 (Series of Natural Studies and Engineering).
-
40.
Moraes LR, Cancio JA, Cairncross S, Huttly S, 2003. Impact of drainage and sewerage on diarrhoea in poor urban areas in Salvador, Brazil. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 97: 153–158.
-
41.
Olsen A, Namwanje H, Nejsum P, Roepstorff A, Thamsborg SM, 2009. Albendazole and mebendazole have low efficacy against Trichuris trichiura in school-age children in Kabale District, Uganda. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 103: 443–446.
-
42.
Hlaing T, Saw T, Lwin M, 1987. Reinfection of people with Ascaris lumbricoides following single, 6-month and 12-month interval mass chemotherapy in Okpo village, rural Burma. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 81: 140–146.
-
43.
Hall A, Anwar KS, Tomkins AM, 1992. Intensity of reinfection with Ascaris lumbricoides and its implications for parasite control. Lancet 339: 1253–1257.
-
44.
Elkins DB, Haswell-Elkins M, Anderson RM, 1988. The importance of host age and sex to patterns of reinfection with Ascaris lumbricoides following mass anthelmintic treatment in a South Indian fishing community. Parasitology 96: 171–184.
-
45.
Quinnell RJ, 2003. Genetics of susceptibility to human helminth infection. Int J Parasitol 33: 1219–1231.
-
46.
Pullan RL, Kabatereine NB, Quinnell RJ, Brooker S, 2010. Spatial and genetic epidemiology of hookworm in a rural community in Uganda. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 4: e713.
-
47.
Brooker S, Kabatereine NB, Smith JL, Mupfasoni D, Mwanje MT, Ndayishimiye O, Lwambo NJ, Mbotha D, Karanja P, Mwandawiro C, Muchiri E, Clements AC, Bundy DA, Snow RW, 2009. An updated atlas of human helminth infections: the example of East Africa. Int J Health Geogr 8: 42.
-
48.
Habtamu K, Degarege A, Ye-Ebiyo Y, Erko B, 2011. Comparison of the Kato-Katz and FLOTAC techniques for the diagnosis of soil-transmitted helminth infections. Parasitol Int 60: 398–402.
-
49.
Tarafder M, Carabin H, Joseph L, Balolong E Jr, Olveda R, McGarvey S, 2010. Estimating the sensitivity and specificity of Kato-Katz stool examination technique for detection of hookworms, Ascaris lumbricoides and Trichuris trichiura infections in humans in the absence of a ‘gold standard’. Int J Parasitol 40: 399–404.
-
50.
WHO, 2012. Accelerating Work to Overcome the Global Impact of Neglected Tropical Disease: A Roadmap for Implementation. Geneva: World Health Organization.
-
51.
Cairncross S, Blumenthal U, Kolsky P, Moraes L, Tayeh A, 1996. The public and domestic domains in the transmission of disease. Trop Med Int Health 1: 27–34.
| Past two years | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 87 | 87 | 11 |
| Full Text Views | 720 | 257 | 0 |
| PDF Downloads | 319 | 67 | 0 |
The Impact of a School-Based Hygiene, Water Quality and Sanitation Intervention on Soil-Transmitted Helminth Reinfection: A Cluster-Randomized Trial
Matthew C. Freeman
Matthew C. Freeman
Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia; London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom; Kenya Medical Research Institute-Wellcome Trust Research Programme, Nairobi, Kenya; Great Lakes University of Kisumu, Kisumu, Kenya; University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
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Thomas Clasen
Thomas Clasen
Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia; London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom; Kenya Medical Research Institute-Wellcome Trust Research Programme, Nairobi, Kenya; Great Lakes University of Kisumu, Kisumu, Kenya; University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
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Simon J. Brooker
Simon J. Brooker
Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia; London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom; Kenya Medical Research Institute-Wellcome Trust Research Programme, Nairobi, Kenya; Great Lakes University of Kisumu, Kisumu, Kenya; University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
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Daniel O. Akoko
Daniel O. Akoko
Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia; London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom; Kenya Medical Research Institute-Wellcome Trust Research Programme, Nairobi, Kenya; Great Lakes University of Kisumu, Kisumu, Kenya; University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
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Richard Rheingans
Richard Rheingans
Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia; London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom; Kenya Medical Research Institute-Wellcome Trust Research Programme, Nairobi, Kenya; Great Lakes University of Kisumu, Kisumu, Kenya; University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
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We conducted a cluster-randomized trial to assess the impact of a school-based water treatment, hygiene, and sanitation program on reducing infection with soil-transmitted helminths (STHs) after school-based deworming. We assessed infection with STHs at baseline and then at two follow-up rounds 8 and 10 months after deworming. Forty government primary schools in Nyanza Province, Kenya were randomly selected and assigned to intervention or control arms. The intervention reduced reinfection prevalence (odds ratio [OR] 0.56, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.31–1.00) and egg count (rate ratio [RR] 0.34, CI 0.15–0.75) of Ascaris lumbricoides. We found no evidence of significant intervention effects on the overall prevalence and intensity of Trichuris trichiura, hookworm, or Schistosoma mansoni reinfection. Provision of school-based sanitation, water quality, and hygiene improvements may reduce reinfection of STHs after school-based deworming, but the magnitude of the effects may be sex- and helminth species-specific.
Author Notes
Financial support: The project was funded by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation and led by CARE – USA.
Authors' addresses: Matthew C. Freeman, Emory University, Environmental Health, Atlanta, GA, E-mail: mcfreem@emory.edu. Thomas Clasen, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London, UK, E-mail: thomas.clasen@lshtm.ac.uk. Simon J. Brooker, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London, UK, and KEMRI Wellcome Trust, Nairobi, Kenya, E-mail: simon.brooker@lshtm.ac.uk. Daniel O. Akoko, Great Lakes University of Kisumu, Tropical Institute of Community Health and Development, Kisumu, Kenya, E-mail: obotedaniel@yahoo.com. Richard Rheingans, University of Florida, Environmental and Global Health, Gainesville, FL, and Emory University, Global Health, Atlanta, GA, E-mail: rrheing@ufl.edu.
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1.
Crompton DW, 1999. How much human helminthiasis is there in the world? J Parasitol 85: 397–403.
-
2.
Hotez PJ, Bundy DAP, Beegle K, Brooker S, Drake L, de Silva N, Montresor A, Engels D, Jukes M, Chitsulo L, Chow J, Laxminarayan R, Michaud CM, Bethony J, Correa–Oliveira R, Xiao SH, Fenwick A, Savioli L, 2006. Helminth Infections: Soil-Transmitted Helminth Infections and Schistosomiasis. Disease Control Priorities in Developing Countries. New York: Oxford University Press, 467–482.
-
3.
Dickson R, Awasthi S, Williamson P, Demellweek C, Garner P, 2000. Effects of treatment for intestinal helminth infection on growth and cognitive performance in children: systematic review of randomized trials. BMJ 320: 1697–1701.
-
4.
Sur D, Saha DR, Manna B, Rajendran K, Bhattacharya SK, 2005. Periodic deworming with albendazole and its impact on growth status and diarrhoeal incidence among children in an urban slum of India. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 99: 261–267.
-
5.
Taylor-Robinson DC, Jones AP, Garner P, 2007. Deworming drugs for treating soil-transmitted intestinal worms in children: effects on growth and school performance. Cochrane Database Syst Rev (4): CD000371.
-
6.
Gulani A, Nagpal J, Osmond C, Sachdev HP, 2007. Effect of administration of intestinal anthelmintic drugs on hemoglobin: systematic review of randomized controlled trials. BMJ 334: 1095.
-
7.
Smith JL, Brooker S, 2010. Impact of hookworm infection and deworming on anemia in non-pregnant populations: a systematic review. Trop Med Int Health 15: 776–795.
-
8.
Keiser J, Utzinger J, 2008. Efficacy of current drugs against soil-transmitted helminth infections: systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA 299: 1937–1948.
-
9.
Miguel E, Kremer M, 2004. Worms: identifying impacts on education and health in the presence of treatment externalities. Econometrica 72: 159–217.
-
10.
Bundy DAP, Wong MS, Lewis LL, Horton J, 1990. Control of geohelminths by delivery of targeted chemotherapy through schools. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 84: 115–120.
-
11.
Jia T-W, Melville S, Utzinger J, King CH, Zhou X-N, 2012. Soil-transmitted helminth reinfection after drug treatment: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 6: e1621.
-
12.
Yap P, Du Z-W, Wu F-W, Jiang J-Y, Chen R, Zhou X-N, Hattendorf J, Utzinger J, Steinmann P, 2013. Rapid re-infection with soil-transmitted helminths after triple-dose albendazole treatment of school-aged children in Yunnan, People's Republic of China. Am J Trop Med Hyg 89: 23–31.
-
13.
Asaolu SO, Ofoezie IE, 2003. The role of health education and sanitation in the control of helminth infections. Acta Trop 86: 283–294.
-
14.
Henry FJ, 1988. Reinfection with Ascaris lumbricoides after chemotherapy: a comparative study in three villages with varying sanitation. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 82: 460–464.
-
15.
WHO, UNICEF, 2010. Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-Water: 2010 Update. WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation. Geneva: WHO.
-
16.
UNICEF, 2009. Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Annual Report. New York: UNICEF.
-
17.
Ziegelbauer K, Speich B, Mäusezahl D, Bos R, Keiser J, Utzinger J, 2012. Effect of sanitation on soil-transmitted helminth infection: systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS Med 9: e1001162.
-
18.
Freeman MC, Greene LE, Dreibelbis R, Saboori S, Muga R, Brumback B, Rheingans R, 2012. Assessing the impact of a school-based water treatment, hygiene, and sanitation program on pupil absence in Nyanza Province, Kenya: a cluster-randomized trial. Trop Med Int Health 17: 380–391.
-
19.
Republic of Kenya Ministry of Education, 2008. National School Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Promotion Strategy 2008–2015. Nairobi.
-
20.
Tukahebwa EM, Vennervald BJ, Nuwaha F, Kabatereine NB, Magnussen P, 2013. Comparative efficacy of one versus two doses of praziquantel on cure rate of Schistosoma mansoni infection and re-infection in Mayuge District, Uganda. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 107: 397–404.
-
21.
Moraes LR, Cancio JA, Cairncross S, 2004. Impact of drainage and sewerage on intestinal nematode infections in poor urban areas in Salvador, Brazil. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 98: 197–204.
-
22.
Katz N, Chavez A, Pellegrino J, 1972. A simple device for quantitative stool thick-smear technique in Schistosomiasis mansoni. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo 14: 397–400.
-
23.
WHO, 1991. Basic Laboratory Methods in Medical Parasitology. Geneva: World Health Organization.
-
24.
Stothard JR, Imison E, French MD, Sousa-Figueiredo JC, Khamis IS, Rollinson D, 2008. Soil-transmitted helminthiasis among mothers and their pre-school children on Unguja Island, Zanzibar with emphasis upon ascariasis. Parasitology 135: 1447–1455.
-
25.
Luoba AI, Wenzel Geissler P, Estambale B, Ouma JH, Alusala D, Ayah R, Mwaniki D, Magnussen P, Friis H, 2005. Earth-eating and reinfection with intestinal helminths among pregnant and lactating women in western Kenya. Trop Med Int Health 10: 220–227.
-
26.
Alemu A, Atnafu A, Addis Z, Shiferaw Y, Teklu T, Mathewos B, Birhan W, Gebretsadik S, Gelaw B, 2011. Soil transmitted helminths and Schistosoma mansoni infections among school children in Zarima town, northwest Ethiopia. BMC Infect Dis 11: 189.
-
27.
Vyas S, Kumaranayake L, 2006. Constructing socio-economic status indices: how to use principal components analysis. Health Policy Plan 21: 459–468.
-
28.
Gwatkin DR, Rustein S, Johnson K, Suliman E, Wagstaff A, Amouzou A, 2007. Socio-economic differences in health, nutrition, and population: Kenya. Country Reports on HPN and Poverty. Washington, DC: The World Bank.
-
29.
Anderson RM, Schad GA, 1985. Hookworm burdens and fecal egg counts: an analysis of the biological basis of variation. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 79: 812–825.
-
30.
Anderson RM, May RM, 1991. Infectious Diseases of Humans. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
-
31.
Brooker S, Bundy DA, 2008. Soil-transmitted helminths (geohelminths). Cook GC, Zumla AI, eds. Manson's Tropical Diseases. London: Elsevier, 1515–1548.
-
32.
Humphries D, Mosites E, Otchere J, Twum WA, Woo L, Jones-Sanpei H, Harrison LM, Bungiro RD, Benham-Pyle B, Bimi L, Edoh D, Bosompem K, Wilson M, Cappello M, 2011. Epidemiology of hookworm infection in Kintampo North Municipality, Ghana: patterns of malaria coinfection, anemia, and albendazole treatment failure. Am J Trop Med Hyg 84: 792–800.
-
33.
Hayes R, Moulton LH, Morgan BTJ, 2009. Cluster randomized controlled trials. New York: Chapman and Hall/CRC Press.
-
34.
Brooker S, Bethony J, Hotez PJ, 2004. Human hookworm infection in the 21st century. Adv Parasitol 58: 197–288.
-
35.
Gunawardena GS, Karunaweera ND, Ismail MM, 2005. Effects of climatic, socio-economic and behavioral factors on the transmission of hookworm (Necator americanus) on two low-country plantations in Sri Lanka. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 99: 601–609.
-
36.
Traub RJ, Robertson ID, Irwin P, Mencke N, Andrew Thompson RC, 2004. The prevalence, intensities and risk factors associated with geohelminth infection in tea-growing communities of Assam, India. Trop Med Int Health 9: 688–701.
-
37.
Knopp S, Mohammed KA, Stothard JR, Khamis IS, Rollinson D, Marti H, Utzinger J, 2010. Patterns and risk factors of helminthiasis and anemia in a rural and a peri-urban community in Zanzibar, in the context of helminth control programs. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 4: e681.
-
38.
Gungoren B, Latipov R, Regallet G, Musabaev E, 2007. Effect of hygiene promotion on the risk of reinfection rate of intestinal parasites in children in rural Uzbekistan. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 101: 564–569.
-
39.
Kanoa B, George E, Abed Y, Al-Hindi A, 2006. Evaluation of the relationship between intestinal parasitic infection and health education among school children in Gaza City, Beit-Lahia Village and Jabalia Refugee Camp, Gaza Strip, Palestine. The Islamic University Journal 14: 39–49 (Series of Natural Studies and Engineering).
-
40.
Moraes LR, Cancio JA, Cairncross S, Huttly S, 2003. Impact of drainage and sewerage on diarrhoea in poor urban areas in Salvador, Brazil. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 97: 153–158.
-
41.
Olsen A, Namwanje H, Nejsum P, Roepstorff A, Thamsborg SM, 2009. Albendazole and mebendazole have low efficacy against Trichuris trichiura in school-age children in Kabale District, Uganda. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 103: 443–446.
-
42.
Hlaing T, Saw T, Lwin M, 1987. Reinfection of people with Ascaris lumbricoides following single, 6-month and 12-month interval mass chemotherapy in Okpo village, rural Burma. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 81: 140–146.
-
43.
Hall A, Anwar KS, Tomkins AM, 1992. Intensity of reinfection with Ascaris lumbricoides and its implications for parasite control. Lancet 339: 1253–1257.
-
44.
Elkins DB, Haswell-Elkins M, Anderson RM, 1988. The importance of host age and sex to patterns of reinfection with Ascaris lumbricoides following mass anthelmintic treatment in a South Indian fishing community. Parasitology 96: 171–184.
-
45.
Quinnell RJ, 2003. Genetics of susceptibility to human helminth infection. Int J Parasitol 33: 1219–1231.
-
46.
Pullan RL, Kabatereine NB, Quinnell RJ, Brooker S, 2010. Spatial and genetic epidemiology of hookworm in a rural community in Uganda. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 4: e713.
-
47.
Brooker S, Kabatereine NB, Smith JL, Mupfasoni D, Mwanje MT, Ndayishimiye O, Lwambo NJ, Mbotha D, Karanja P, Mwandawiro C, Muchiri E, Clements AC, Bundy DA, Snow RW, 2009. An updated atlas of human helminth infections: the example of East Africa. Int J Health Geogr 8: 42.
-
48.
Habtamu K, Degarege A, Ye-Ebiyo Y, Erko B, 2011. Comparison of the Kato-Katz and FLOTAC techniques for the diagnosis of soil-transmitted helminth infections. Parasitol Int 60: 398–402.
-
49.
Tarafder M, Carabin H, Joseph L, Balolong E Jr, Olveda R, McGarvey S, 2010. Estimating the sensitivity and specificity of Kato-Katz stool examination technique for detection of hookworms, Ascaris lumbricoides and Trichuris trichiura infections in humans in the absence of a ‘gold standard’. Int J Parasitol 40: 399–404.
-
50.
WHO, 2012. Accelerating Work to Overcome the Global Impact of Neglected Tropical Disease: A Roadmap for Implementation. Geneva: World Health Organization.
-
51.
Cairncross S, Blumenthal U, Kolsky P, Moraes L, Tayeh A, 1996. The public and domestic domains in the transmission of disease. Trop Med Int Health 1: 27–34.
| Past two years | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 87 | 87 | 11 |
| Full Text Views | 720 | 257 | 0 |
| PDF Downloads | 319 | 67 | 0 |