McLean DM, Donohue WL, 1959. Powassan virus: isolation of virus from a fatal case of encephalitis. Can Med Assoc J 80: 708–711.
Telford SR III, Armstrong PM, Katavolos P, Foppa I, Garcia AS, Wilson ML, Spielman A, 1997. A new tick-borne encephalitis-like virus infecting New England deer ticks, Ixodes dammini. Emerg Infect Dis 3: 165–170.
Tavakoli NP, Wang H, Dupuis M, Hull R, Ebel GD, Gilmore EJ, Faust PL, 2009. Fatal case of deer tick virus encephalitis. N Engl J Med 360: 2099–2107.
Ebel GD, Campbell EN, Goethert HK, Spielman A, Telford SR III, 2000. Enzootic transmission of deer tick virus in New England and Wisconsin sites. Am J Trop Med Hyg 63: 36–42.
Ebel GD, Foppa I, Spielman A, Telford SR III, 1999. A focus of deer tick virus transmission in the northcentral United States. Emerg Infect Dis 5: 570–574.
McLean DM, Larke RP, 1963. Powassan and Silverwater viruses: ecology of two Ontario arboviruses. Can Med Assoc J 88: 182–185.
McLean DM, Smith PA, Livingstone SE, Wilson WE, Wilson AG, 1966. Powassan virus: vernal spread during 1965. Can Med Assoc J 94: 532–536.
Hinten SR, Beckett GA, Gensheimer KF, Pritchard E, Courtney TM, Sears SD, Woytowicz JM, Preston DG, Smith RP Jr, Rand PW, Lacombe EH, Holman MS, Lubelczyk CB, Kelso PT, Beelen AP, Stobierski MG, Sotir MJ, Wong S, Ebel G, Kosoy O, Piesman J, Campbell GL, Marfin AA, 2008. Increased recognition of Powassan encephalitis in the United States, 1999–2005. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 8: 733–740.
Pesko KN, Torres-Perez F, Hjelle BL, Ebel GD, 2010. Molecular epidemiology of Powassan virus in North America. J Gen Virol 91: 2698–2705.
Piesman J, Spielman A, Etkind P, Ruebush TK II, Juranek DD, 1979. Role of deer in the epizootiology of Babesia microti in Massachusetts, USA. J Med Entomol 15: 537–540.
Magnarelli LA, Ijdo JW, Ramakrishnan U, Henderson DW, Stafford KC III, Fikrig E, 2004. Use of recombinant antigens of Borrelia burgdorferi and Anaplasma phagocytophilum in enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays to detect antibodies in white-tailed deer. J Wildl Dis 40: 249–258.
Magnarelli LA, Williams SC, Fikrig E, 2010. Seasonal prevalence of serum antibodies to whole cell and recombinant antigens of Borrelia burgdorferi and Anaplasma phagocytophilum in white-tailed deer in Connecticut. J Wildl Dis 46: 781–790.
Calisher CH, Karabatsos N, Dalrymple JM, Shope RE, Porterfield JS, Westaway EG, Brandt WE, 1989. Antigenic relationships between flaviviruses as determined by cross-neutralization tests with polyclonal antisera. J Gen Virol 70: 37–43.
Beasley DW, Suderman MT, Holbrook MR, Barrett AD, 2001. Nucleotide sequencing and serological evidence that the recently recognized deer tick virus is a genotype of Powassan virus. Virus Res 79: 81–89.
Mutebi JP, Lubelczyk C, Eisen R, Panella N, Macmillan K, Godsey M, Swope B, Young G, Smith RP, Kantar L, Robinson S, Sears S, 2011. Using wild white-tailed deer to detect eastern equine encephalitis virus activity in Maine. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 11: 1403–1409.
Molaei G, Andreadis TG, Armstrong PM, Anderson JF, Vossbrinck CR, 2006. Host feeding patterns of Culex mosquitoes and West Nile virus transmission, northeastern United States. Emerg Infect Dis 12: 468–474.
Rand PW, Lacombe EH, Dearborn R, Cahill B, Elias S, Lubelczyk CB, Beckett GA, Smith RP Jr, 2007. Passive surveillance in Maine, an area emergent for tick-borne diseases. J Med Entomol 44: 1118–1129.
Lubelczyk C, Cahill BK, Hanson T, Turmel J, Lacombe E, Rand PW, Elias SP, Smith RP Jr, 2010. Tick (Acari: Ixodidae) infestation at two rural, seasonal camps in Maine and Vermont. J Parasitol 96: 442–443.
Diuk-Wasser MA, Hoen AG, Cislo P, Brinkerhoff R, Hamer SA, Rowland M, Cortinas R, Vourc'h G, Melton F, Hickling GJ, Tsao JI, Bunikis J, Barbour AG, Kitron U, Piesman J, Fish D, 2012. Human Risk of Infection with Borrelia burgdorferi, the Lyme disease agent, in eastern United States. Am J Trop Med Hyg 86: 320–327.
Hicar MD, Edwards K, Bloch K, 2011. Powassan virus infection presenting as acute disseminated encephalomyelitis in Tennessee. Pediatr Infect Dis J 30: 86–88.
Choi EE, Taylor RA, 2012. A case of Powassan viral hemorrhagic encephalitis involving bilateral thalami. Clin Neurol Neurosurg 114: 172–175.
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Powassan virus and its subtype, deer tick virus, are closely related tick-borne flaviviruses that circulate in North America. The incidence of human infection by these agents appears to have increased in recent years. To define exposure patterns among white-tailed deer, potentially useful sentinels that are frequently parasitized by ticks, we screened serum samples collected during 1979–2010 in Connecticut, Maine, and Vermont for neutralizing antibody by using a novel recombinant deer tick virus–West Nile virus chimeric virus. Evidence of exposure was detected in all three states. Overall our results demonstrate that seroprevalence is variable in time and space, suggesting that risk of exposure to Powassan virus is similarly variable.
Financial support: This study was supported in part by funds from the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease, National Institutes of Health, under grant AI067380. Eleanor R. Deardorff was supported by Institutional Research and Academic Career Development Award K12GM088021 from the National Institute of General Medical Sciences under the University of New Mexico Academic Science Education and Research Training fellowship.
Authors' addresses: Robert A. Nofchissey, Department of Medicine, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, E-mail: rnofchissey@salud.unm.edu. Eleanor R. Deardorff, Department of Pathology, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, Albuquerque, NM, and Department of Experimental Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX, E-mail: edeardorff@salud.unm.edu. Tia M. Blevins and Louis A. Magnarelli, Department of Entomology, The Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, New Haven, CT, E-mails: tia.blevins@ct.gov and louis.magnarelli@ct.gov. Michael Anishchenko, Angela Bosco-Lauth, John-Paul Mutebi, and Aaron C. Brault, Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, CO, E-mails: iot5@cdc.gov, mopargal@rams.colostate.edu, john-paul.mutebi@cdc.hhs.gov, and acbrault1@mac.com. Erica Berl, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Vermont Department of Health, Burlington, VT, E-mail: erica.berl@state.vt.us. Charles Lubelczyk, Vector-Borne Disease Laboratory, Maine Medical Center Research Institute, South Portland, ME, E-mail: lubelc@mmc.org. Gregory D. Ebel, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, E-mail: gregory.ebel@colostate.edu.
McLean DM, Donohue WL, 1959. Powassan virus: isolation of virus from a fatal case of encephalitis. Can Med Assoc J 80: 708–711.
Telford SR III, Armstrong PM, Katavolos P, Foppa I, Garcia AS, Wilson ML, Spielman A, 1997. A new tick-borne encephalitis-like virus infecting New England deer ticks, Ixodes dammini. Emerg Infect Dis 3: 165–170.
Tavakoli NP, Wang H, Dupuis M, Hull R, Ebel GD, Gilmore EJ, Faust PL, 2009. Fatal case of deer tick virus encephalitis. N Engl J Med 360: 2099–2107.
Ebel GD, Campbell EN, Goethert HK, Spielman A, Telford SR III, 2000. Enzootic transmission of deer tick virus in New England and Wisconsin sites. Am J Trop Med Hyg 63: 36–42.
Ebel GD, Foppa I, Spielman A, Telford SR III, 1999. A focus of deer tick virus transmission in the northcentral United States. Emerg Infect Dis 5: 570–574.
McLean DM, Larke RP, 1963. Powassan and Silverwater viruses: ecology of two Ontario arboviruses. Can Med Assoc J 88: 182–185.
McLean DM, Smith PA, Livingstone SE, Wilson WE, Wilson AG, 1966. Powassan virus: vernal spread during 1965. Can Med Assoc J 94: 532–536.
Hinten SR, Beckett GA, Gensheimer KF, Pritchard E, Courtney TM, Sears SD, Woytowicz JM, Preston DG, Smith RP Jr, Rand PW, Lacombe EH, Holman MS, Lubelczyk CB, Kelso PT, Beelen AP, Stobierski MG, Sotir MJ, Wong S, Ebel G, Kosoy O, Piesman J, Campbell GL, Marfin AA, 2008. Increased recognition of Powassan encephalitis in the United States, 1999–2005. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 8: 733–740.
Pesko KN, Torres-Perez F, Hjelle BL, Ebel GD, 2010. Molecular epidemiology of Powassan virus in North America. J Gen Virol 91: 2698–2705.
Piesman J, Spielman A, Etkind P, Ruebush TK II, Juranek DD, 1979. Role of deer in the epizootiology of Babesia microti in Massachusetts, USA. J Med Entomol 15: 537–540.
Magnarelli LA, Ijdo JW, Ramakrishnan U, Henderson DW, Stafford KC III, Fikrig E, 2004. Use of recombinant antigens of Borrelia burgdorferi and Anaplasma phagocytophilum in enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays to detect antibodies in white-tailed deer. J Wildl Dis 40: 249–258.
Magnarelli LA, Williams SC, Fikrig E, 2010. Seasonal prevalence of serum antibodies to whole cell and recombinant antigens of Borrelia burgdorferi and Anaplasma phagocytophilum in white-tailed deer in Connecticut. J Wildl Dis 46: 781–790.
Calisher CH, Karabatsos N, Dalrymple JM, Shope RE, Porterfield JS, Westaway EG, Brandt WE, 1989. Antigenic relationships between flaviviruses as determined by cross-neutralization tests with polyclonal antisera. J Gen Virol 70: 37–43.
Beasley DW, Suderman MT, Holbrook MR, Barrett AD, 2001. Nucleotide sequencing and serological evidence that the recently recognized deer tick virus is a genotype of Powassan virus. Virus Res 79: 81–89.
Mutebi JP, Lubelczyk C, Eisen R, Panella N, Macmillan K, Godsey M, Swope B, Young G, Smith RP, Kantar L, Robinson S, Sears S, 2011. Using wild white-tailed deer to detect eastern equine encephalitis virus activity in Maine. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 11: 1403–1409.
Molaei G, Andreadis TG, Armstrong PM, Anderson JF, Vossbrinck CR, 2006. Host feeding patterns of Culex mosquitoes and West Nile virus transmission, northeastern United States. Emerg Infect Dis 12: 468–474.
Rand PW, Lacombe EH, Dearborn R, Cahill B, Elias S, Lubelczyk CB, Beckett GA, Smith RP Jr, 2007. Passive surveillance in Maine, an area emergent for tick-borne diseases. J Med Entomol 44: 1118–1129.
Lubelczyk C, Cahill BK, Hanson T, Turmel J, Lacombe E, Rand PW, Elias SP, Smith RP Jr, 2010. Tick (Acari: Ixodidae) infestation at two rural, seasonal camps in Maine and Vermont. J Parasitol 96: 442–443.
Diuk-Wasser MA, Hoen AG, Cislo P, Brinkerhoff R, Hamer SA, Rowland M, Cortinas R, Vourc'h G, Melton F, Hickling GJ, Tsao JI, Bunikis J, Barbour AG, Kitron U, Piesman J, Fish D, 2012. Human Risk of Infection with Borrelia burgdorferi, the Lyme disease agent, in eastern United States. Am J Trop Med Hyg 86: 320–327.
Hicar MD, Edwards K, Bloch K, 2011. Powassan virus infection presenting as acute disseminated encephalomyelitis in Tennessee. Pediatr Infect Dis J 30: 86–88.
Choi EE, Taylor RA, 2012. A case of Powassan viral hemorrhagic encephalitis involving bilateral thalami. Clin Neurol Neurosurg 114: 172–175.
Past two years | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
---|---|---|---|
Abstract Views | 922 | 660 | 33 |
Full Text Views | 392 | 15 | 2 |
PDF Downloads | 144 | 19 | 1 |