Gushulak BD, MacPherson DW, 2004. Globalization of infectious diseases: the impact of migration. Clin Infect Dis 38: 1742–1748.
Oblakf Lander A, 2011. Immigration to EU Member States down by 6% and Emigration Up by 13 % in 2008. Eurostat Statistics in Focus 1/2011. Available at: http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_OFFPUB/KS-SF-11-001/EN/KS-SF-11-001-EN.PDF. Accessed February 12, 2012.
López-Vélez R, Huerga H, Turrientes MC, 2003. Infectious diseases in immigrants from the perspective of a tropical medicine referral unit. Am J Trop Med Hyg 69: 115–121.
Manzardo C, Treviño B, Gómez i Prat J, Cabezos J, Monguí E, Clavería I, Luis Del Val J, Zabaleta E, Zarzuela F, Navarro R, 2008. Communicable diseases in the immigrant population attended to in a tropical medicine unit: epidemiological aspects and public health issues. Travel Med Infect Dis 6: 4–11.
Toro C, Jiménez V, Rodríguez C, Del Romero J, Rodés B, Holguín A, Alvarez P, García-Campello M, Gómez-Hernando C, Guelar A, Sheldon J, de Mendoza C, Simón A, Soriano V, 2006. Molecular and epidemiological characteristics of blood-borne virus infections among recent immigrants in Spain. J Med Virol 78: 1599–1608.
Monge-Maillo B, Jiménez BC, Pérez-Molina JA, Norman F, Navarro M, Pérez-Ayala A, Herrero JM, Zamarrón P, López-Vélez R, 2009. Imported infectious diseases in mobile populations, Spain. Emerg Infect Dis 15: 1745–1752.
Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS; World Health Organization, 2009. AIDS Epidemic Update December 2009. Available at: http://data.unaids.org/pub/report/2009/jc1700_epi_update_2009_en.pdf. Accessed February 12, 2012.
Basaras M, Santamaría A, Sarsa M, Gutiérrez E, de Olano Y, Cisterna R, 1999. Seroprevalence of hepatitis B and C, and human immunodeficiency type 1 viruses in a rural population from the Republic of Equatorial Guinea. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 93: 250–252.
Jimoh AAG, 2004. Prevalence of HIV antibodies amongst apparently healthy pregnant women in Mongomo, Guinea Equatorial. Niger J Med 13: 114–117.
UNAIDS/WHO Working Group on Global HIV/AIDS and STI, 2008. UNAIDS/WHO Epidemiological Fact Sheets on HIV and AIDS, 2008 Update. Equatorial Guinea. Available at: http://apps.who.int/globalatlas/predefinedReports/EFS2008/full/EFS2008_GQ.pdf. Accessed February 12, 2012.
GlobalHealthFacts.org, 2012. Antiretroviral Therapy Coverage Rate in Low- and Middle-Income Countries. Available at: http://www.globalhealthfacts.org/data/topic/map.aspx?ind=11. Accessed December 23, 2012.
Thomson MM, Nájera R, 2005. Molecular epidemiology of HIV-1 variants in the global AIDS pandemic: an update. AIDS Rev 7: 210–224.
Treviño A, Soriano V, Rodríguez C, Arredondo M, Rivas P, Herrero-Mendoza D, Parra P, del Romero J, Anta L, Puente S, de Mendoza C, 2011. Changing rate of non-B subtypes and coinfection with hepatitis B/C viruses in newly diagnosed HIV type 1 individuals in Spain. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 27: 633–638.
Geretti AM, Harrison L, Green H, Sabin C, Hill T, Fearnhill E, Pillay D, Dunn D; UK Collaborative Group on HIV Drug Resistance, 2009. Effect of HIV-1 subtype on virologic and immunologic response to starting highly active antiretroviral therapy. Clin Infect Dis 48: 1296–1305.
Madhava V, Burgess C, Drucker E, 2002. Epidemiology of chronic hepatitis C virus infection in sub-Saharan Africa. Lancet Infect Dis 2: 293–302.
Bracho MA, Carrillo-Cruz FY, Ortega E, Moya A, González-Candelas F, 2006. A new subtype of hepatitis C virus genotype 1: complete genome and phylogenetic relationships of an Equatorial Guinea isolate. J Gen Virol 87: 1697–1702.
Ndong-Atome GR, Makuwa M, Ouwe-Missi-Oukem-Boyer O, Pybus OG, Branger M, Le Hello S, Boye-Cheik SB, Brun-Vezinet F, Kazanji M, Roques P, Bisser S, 2008. High prevalence of hepatitis C virus infection and predominance of genotype 4 in rural Gabon. J Med Virol 80: 1581–1587.
Nerrienet E, Pouillot R, Lachenal G, Njouom R, Mfoupouendoun J, Bilong C, Mauclere P, Pasquier C, Ayouba A, 2005. Hepatitis C virus infection in cameroon: a cohort-effect. J Med Virol 76: 208–214.
Pépin J, Lavoie M, Pybus OG, Pouillot R, Foupouapouognigni Y, Rousset D, Labbé AC, Njouom R, 2010. Risk factors for hepatitis C virus transmission in colonial Cameroon. Clin Infect Dis 51: 768–776.
Craxì A, Pawlotsky JM, Wedemeyer H, Bjoro K, Flisiak R, Forns X, Mondelli M, Peck-Radosavljevic M, Rosenberg W, Sarrazin C, Jacobson I, Dusheiko G, 2011. EASL clinical practice guidelines: management of hepatitis C virus infection. J Hepatol 55: 245–264.
Derbala MF, Amer AM, Almohanadi M, John A, Amin A, John A, Sharma M, Alkaabi SR, Al Dweik NZ, Pasic F, Yaqoob R, Butt MT, Shebl FM, 2011. Hepatitis C virus genotype 4 with normal transaminases: histological changes, schistosomiasis and response to treatment. J Viral Hepat 18: e258–e262.
Rosen HR, 2011. Clinical practice. Chronic hepatitis C infection. N Engl J Med 364: 2429–2438.
Edmunds WJ, Medley GF, Nokes DJ, O'Callaghan CJ, Whittle HC, Hall AJ, 1996. Epidemiological patterns of hepatitis B virus (HBV) in highly endemic areas. Epidemiol Infect 117: 313–325.
Kew MC, 2008. Hepatitis B virus infection: the burden of disease in South Africa. South Afr J Epidemiol Infect 23: 4–8.
Valente F, do Lago BV, de Castro CAV, de Almeida AJ, Gomes SA, Soares CC, 2010. Epidemiology and molecular characterization of hepatitis B virus in Luanda, Angola. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 105: 970–977.
Majori S, Baldo V, Tommasi I, Malizia M, Floreani A, Monteiro G, Ferrari A, Accordini A, Guzzo P, Baldovin T, 2008. Hepatitis A, B, and C Infection in a community of sub-saharan immigrants living in Verona (Italy). J Travel Med 15: 323–327.
Kurbanov F, Tanaka Y, Fujiwara K, Sugauchi F, Mbanya D, Zekeng L, Ndembi N, Ngansop C, Kaptue L, Miura T, Ido E, Hayami M, Ichimura H, Mizokami M, 2005. A new subtype (subgenotype) Ac (A3) of hepatitis B virus and recombination between genotypes A and E in Cameroon. J Gen Virol 86: 2047–2056.
Makuwa M, Mintsa-Ndong A, Souquière S, Nkoghé D, Leroy EM, Kazanji M, 2009. Prevalence and molecular diversity of hepatitis B virus and hepatitis delta virus in urban and rural populations in northern Gabon in central Africa. J Clin Microbiol 47: 2265–2268.
Dienstag JL, 2008. Hepatitis B virus infection. N Engl J Med 359: 1486–1500.
Rizzetto M, 2009. Hepatitis D: thirty years after. J Hepatol 50: 1043–1050.
Sheldon J, Soriano V, 2008. Hepatitis B virus escape mutants induced by antiviral therapy. J Antimicrob Chemother 61: 766–768.
Reher DS, Cortés Alcalá L, González Quiñones F, Requena M, Sánchez Domínguez MI, Sanz Gimeno A, Stanek M, 2008. Informe Encuesta Nacional de Inmigrantes (ENI–2007). Available at: http://www.ine.es/daco/daco42/inmigrantes/informe/eni07_informe.pdf. Accessed February 12, 2012.
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A total of 1,220 subjects from Equatorial Guinea living in Spain (median age = 41 years; 453 male and 767 female) was examined for antibodies to human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and Hepatitis B (HBV), C (HCV), and D (HDV) viruses. Extracted RNA and DNA from the positive samples were used to quantify viral load. The prevalence of HIV antibodies, HCV RNA, and HBV surface antigen (HBsAg) was 10.8% (N = 132), 11.6% (N = 141), and 7.9% (N = 96), respectively. The most prevalent HIV variant was CRF02_AG (38.5%; N = 40). HCV genotype 4 (60%; N = 36) and HBV genotype A3 (32%; N = 8) were the hepatitis variants most frequently found. Superinfection with HDV was seen in 20.9% (N = 24) of HBsAg carriers. A control group of 276 immigrants from other sub-Saharan countries showed similar rates of HIV and HBsAg, although no HCV cases were found. Immigrants constitute a major source of HIV and hepatitis viruses in Spain; therefore, it is important that control measures are intensified.
Authors' addresses: Pablo Rivas, Tropical Medicine Unit, Infectious Diseases Department, Hospital Carlos III, Madrid, Spain, E-mail: pablorivasg@hotmail.com. María D. Herrero, Concepción Ladrón de Guevara, Mar Lago, and Sabino Puente, Tropical Medicine Unit, Infectious Diseases Department, Hospital Carlos III, Madrid, Spain, E-mails: mdolhermen@yahoo.es, cladron.hulp@salud.madrid.org, rorilago@yahoo.es, and sabino.puente@terra.es. Eva Poveda, Ana Treviño, Carmen de Mendoza, and Vincent Soriano, Infectious Diseases Department, Hospital Carlos III, Madrid, Spain, E-mails: evapoveda@hotmail.com, ana.trevino.rc@gmail.com, cmendoza@terra.es, and vicenc.soriano@gmail.com. Antonio Madejón, Hepatology Unit, Hospital Carlos III, CIBERehd (Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red en el Área temática de Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas), Madrid, Spain, E-mail: amadejon@gmail.com. Maite Gutiérrez, Microbiology Department, Hospital Carlos III, Madrid, Spain, E-mail: mgutierrez.hciii@salud.madrid.org.
Gushulak BD, MacPherson DW, 2004. Globalization of infectious diseases: the impact of migration. Clin Infect Dis 38: 1742–1748.
Oblakf Lander A, 2011. Immigration to EU Member States down by 6% and Emigration Up by 13 % in 2008. Eurostat Statistics in Focus 1/2011. Available at: http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_OFFPUB/KS-SF-11-001/EN/KS-SF-11-001-EN.PDF. Accessed February 12, 2012.
López-Vélez R, Huerga H, Turrientes MC, 2003. Infectious diseases in immigrants from the perspective of a tropical medicine referral unit. Am J Trop Med Hyg 69: 115–121.
Manzardo C, Treviño B, Gómez i Prat J, Cabezos J, Monguí E, Clavería I, Luis Del Val J, Zabaleta E, Zarzuela F, Navarro R, 2008. Communicable diseases in the immigrant population attended to in a tropical medicine unit: epidemiological aspects and public health issues. Travel Med Infect Dis 6: 4–11.
Toro C, Jiménez V, Rodríguez C, Del Romero J, Rodés B, Holguín A, Alvarez P, García-Campello M, Gómez-Hernando C, Guelar A, Sheldon J, de Mendoza C, Simón A, Soriano V, 2006. Molecular and epidemiological characteristics of blood-borne virus infections among recent immigrants in Spain. J Med Virol 78: 1599–1608.
Monge-Maillo B, Jiménez BC, Pérez-Molina JA, Norman F, Navarro M, Pérez-Ayala A, Herrero JM, Zamarrón P, López-Vélez R, 2009. Imported infectious diseases in mobile populations, Spain. Emerg Infect Dis 15: 1745–1752.
Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS; World Health Organization, 2009. AIDS Epidemic Update December 2009. Available at: http://data.unaids.org/pub/report/2009/jc1700_epi_update_2009_en.pdf. Accessed February 12, 2012.
Basaras M, Santamaría A, Sarsa M, Gutiérrez E, de Olano Y, Cisterna R, 1999. Seroprevalence of hepatitis B and C, and human immunodeficiency type 1 viruses in a rural population from the Republic of Equatorial Guinea. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 93: 250–252.
Jimoh AAG, 2004. Prevalence of HIV antibodies amongst apparently healthy pregnant women in Mongomo, Guinea Equatorial. Niger J Med 13: 114–117.
UNAIDS/WHO Working Group on Global HIV/AIDS and STI, 2008. UNAIDS/WHO Epidemiological Fact Sheets on HIV and AIDS, 2008 Update. Equatorial Guinea. Available at: http://apps.who.int/globalatlas/predefinedReports/EFS2008/full/EFS2008_GQ.pdf. Accessed February 12, 2012.
GlobalHealthFacts.org, 2012. Antiretroviral Therapy Coverage Rate in Low- and Middle-Income Countries. Available at: http://www.globalhealthfacts.org/data/topic/map.aspx?ind=11. Accessed December 23, 2012.
Thomson MM, Nájera R, 2005. Molecular epidemiology of HIV-1 variants in the global AIDS pandemic: an update. AIDS Rev 7: 210–224.
Treviño A, Soriano V, Rodríguez C, Arredondo M, Rivas P, Herrero-Mendoza D, Parra P, del Romero J, Anta L, Puente S, de Mendoza C, 2011. Changing rate of non-B subtypes and coinfection with hepatitis B/C viruses in newly diagnosed HIV type 1 individuals in Spain. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 27: 633–638.
Geretti AM, Harrison L, Green H, Sabin C, Hill T, Fearnhill E, Pillay D, Dunn D; UK Collaborative Group on HIV Drug Resistance, 2009. Effect of HIV-1 subtype on virologic and immunologic response to starting highly active antiretroviral therapy. Clin Infect Dis 48: 1296–1305.
Madhava V, Burgess C, Drucker E, 2002. Epidemiology of chronic hepatitis C virus infection in sub-Saharan Africa. Lancet Infect Dis 2: 293–302.
Bracho MA, Carrillo-Cruz FY, Ortega E, Moya A, González-Candelas F, 2006. A new subtype of hepatitis C virus genotype 1: complete genome and phylogenetic relationships of an Equatorial Guinea isolate. J Gen Virol 87: 1697–1702.
Ndong-Atome GR, Makuwa M, Ouwe-Missi-Oukem-Boyer O, Pybus OG, Branger M, Le Hello S, Boye-Cheik SB, Brun-Vezinet F, Kazanji M, Roques P, Bisser S, 2008. High prevalence of hepatitis C virus infection and predominance of genotype 4 in rural Gabon. J Med Virol 80: 1581–1587.
Nerrienet E, Pouillot R, Lachenal G, Njouom R, Mfoupouendoun J, Bilong C, Mauclere P, Pasquier C, Ayouba A, 2005. Hepatitis C virus infection in cameroon: a cohort-effect. J Med Virol 76: 208–214.
Pépin J, Lavoie M, Pybus OG, Pouillot R, Foupouapouognigni Y, Rousset D, Labbé AC, Njouom R, 2010. Risk factors for hepatitis C virus transmission in colonial Cameroon. Clin Infect Dis 51: 768–776.
Craxì A, Pawlotsky JM, Wedemeyer H, Bjoro K, Flisiak R, Forns X, Mondelli M, Peck-Radosavljevic M, Rosenberg W, Sarrazin C, Jacobson I, Dusheiko G, 2011. EASL clinical practice guidelines: management of hepatitis C virus infection. J Hepatol 55: 245–264.
Derbala MF, Amer AM, Almohanadi M, John A, Amin A, John A, Sharma M, Alkaabi SR, Al Dweik NZ, Pasic F, Yaqoob R, Butt MT, Shebl FM, 2011. Hepatitis C virus genotype 4 with normal transaminases: histological changes, schistosomiasis and response to treatment. J Viral Hepat 18: e258–e262.
Rosen HR, 2011. Clinical practice. Chronic hepatitis C infection. N Engl J Med 364: 2429–2438.
Edmunds WJ, Medley GF, Nokes DJ, O'Callaghan CJ, Whittle HC, Hall AJ, 1996. Epidemiological patterns of hepatitis B virus (HBV) in highly endemic areas. Epidemiol Infect 117: 313–325.
Kew MC, 2008. Hepatitis B virus infection: the burden of disease in South Africa. South Afr J Epidemiol Infect 23: 4–8.
Valente F, do Lago BV, de Castro CAV, de Almeida AJ, Gomes SA, Soares CC, 2010. Epidemiology and molecular characterization of hepatitis B virus in Luanda, Angola. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 105: 970–977.
Majori S, Baldo V, Tommasi I, Malizia M, Floreani A, Monteiro G, Ferrari A, Accordini A, Guzzo P, Baldovin T, 2008. Hepatitis A, B, and C Infection in a community of sub-saharan immigrants living in Verona (Italy). J Travel Med 15: 323–327.
Kurbanov F, Tanaka Y, Fujiwara K, Sugauchi F, Mbanya D, Zekeng L, Ndembi N, Ngansop C, Kaptue L, Miura T, Ido E, Hayami M, Ichimura H, Mizokami M, 2005. A new subtype (subgenotype) Ac (A3) of hepatitis B virus and recombination between genotypes A and E in Cameroon. J Gen Virol 86: 2047–2056.
Makuwa M, Mintsa-Ndong A, Souquière S, Nkoghé D, Leroy EM, Kazanji M, 2009. Prevalence and molecular diversity of hepatitis B virus and hepatitis delta virus in urban and rural populations in northern Gabon in central Africa. J Clin Microbiol 47: 2265–2268.
Dienstag JL, 2008. Hepatitis B virus infection. N Engl J Med 359: 1486–1500.
Rizzetto M, 2009. Hepatitis D: thirty years after. J Hepatol 50: 1043–1050.
Sheldon J, Soriano V, 2008. Hepatitis B virus escape mutants induced by antiviral therapy. J Antimicrob Chemother 61: 766–768.
Reher DS, Cortés Alcalá L, González Quiñones F, Requena M, Sánchez Domínguez MI, Sanz Gimeno A, Stanek M, 2008. Informe Encuesta Nacional de Inmigrantes (ENI–2007). Available at: http://www.ine.es/daco/daco42/inmigrantes/informe/eni07_informe.pdf. Accessed February 12, 2012.
Past two years | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
---|---|---|---|
Abstract Views | 715 | 626 | 248 |
Full Text Views | 411 | 9 | 0 |
PDF Downloads | 101 | 12 | 0 |