ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1.
Brabin BJ, Hakimi M, Pelletier D, 2001. Iron-deficiency anemia: reexamining the nature and magnitude of the public health problem. J Nutr 131: 604S–615S.
-
2.
WHO, 2008. Worldwide Prevalence of Anaemia 1993–2005: WHO Global Database on Anaemia. Geneva: WHO.
-
3.
WHO/CDC, 2007. Assessing the iron status of populations. Report of a Joint WHO/CDC Technical Consultation on the Assessment of Iron Status at the Population Level. Geneva, Switzerland, 6–8 April 2004. Geneva: WHO Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data, 1–35.
-
4.
Ezzati M, Lopez AD, Rodgers A, Murray CJ, 2005. Comparative Quantification of Health Risks: Global and Regional Burden of Diseases Attributable to Selected Major Risk Factors. Geneva: WHO.
-
5.
Cameron BM, Neufeld LM, 2011. Estimating the prevalence of iron deficiency in the first two years of life: technical and measurement issues. Nutr Rev 69 (Suppl 1): S49–S56.
-
6.
Black RE, Allen LH, Bhutta ZA, Caulfield LE, de Onis M, Ezzati M, Mathers C, Rivera J, 2008. Maternal and child undernutrition: global and regional exposures and health consequences. Lancet 371: 243–260.
-
7.
de Silva NR, Brooker S, Hotez PJ, Montresor A, Engels D, Savioli L, 2003. Soil-transmitted helminth infections: updating the global picture. Trends Parasitol 19: 547–551.
-
8.
Flint J, Harding RM, Boyce AJ, Clegg JB, 1998. The population genetics of the hemoglobinopathies. Baillieres Clin Haematol 11: 1–51.
-
9.
Stoltzfus RJ, 2001. Defining iron-deficiency anemia in public health terms: a time for reflection. J Nutr 131: 565S–567S.
-
10.
Stoltzfus RJ, Chway HM, Montresor A, Tielsch JM, Jape JK, Albonico M, Savioli L, 2004. Low dose daily iron supplementation improves iron status and appetite but not anemia, whereas quarterly anthelminthic treatment improves growth, appetite and anemia in Zanzibari preschool children. J Nutr 134: 348.
-
12.
CDC, 2007. Baseline Data from the Nyando Integrated Child Health and Education Project—Kenya. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 56: 1109–1113.
-
13.
Suchdev PS, Ruth L, Obure A, Were V, Ochieng C, Ogange L, Owuor M, Ngure F, Quick R, Juliao P, 2010. Monitoring the marketing, distribution, and use of Sprinkles micronutrient powders in rural western Kenya. Food Nutr Bull 31: 168–178.
-
14.
Suchdev PS, Ruth LJ, Woodruff BA, Mbakaya C, Mandava U, Flores-Ayala R, Jefferds ME, Quick R, 2012. Selling Sprinkles micronutrient powder reduces anemia, iron deficiency, and vitamin A deficiency in young children in western Kenya: a cluster-randomized controlled trial. AJCN 95: 1223–1230.
-
15.
Grant FKE, Suchdev PS, Flores-Ayala R, Cole CR, Ramakrishnan U, Ruth LJ, Martorell R, 2012. Correcting for inflammation changes estimates of iron deficiency among rural Kenyan preschool children. J Nutr 142: 105–111.
-
16.
WHO, 2001. Iron Deficiency Anemia, Assessment, Prevention and Control, A Guide for Program Managers. WHO: Geneva.
-
17.
Erhardt JG, Estes JE, Pfeiffer CM, Biesalski HK, Craft NE, 2004. Combined measurement of ferritin, soluble transferrin receptor, retinol binding protein, and C-reactive protein by an inexpensive, sensitive, and simple sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay technique. J Nutr 134: 3127–3132.
-
18.
Guyatt GH, Oxman AD, Ali M, Willan A, McIlroy W, Patterson C, 1992. Laboratory diagnosis of iron-deficiency anemia. J Gen Intern Med 7: 145–153.
-
19.
Engle-Stone R, Haskell MJ, Ndjebayi AO, Nankap M, Erhardt JG, Gimou MM, Brown KH, 2011. Plasma retinol-binding protein predicts plasma retinol concentration in both infected and uninfected Cameroonian women and children. J Nutr 141: 2233–2241.
-
20.
Williams TN, Wambua S, Uyoga S, Macharia A, Mwacharo JK, Newton CRJC, Maitland K, 2005. Both heterozygous and homozygous α+ thalassemias protect against severe and fatal Plasmodium falciparum malaria on the coast of Kenya. Blood 106: 368–371.
-
21.
Waterfall CM, Cobb BD, 2001. Single tube genotyping of sickle cell anemia using PCR-based SNP analysis. Nucleic Acids Res 29: e119.
-
22.
Gwatkin DR, Rutstein S, Johnson K, Suliman E, Wagstaff A, Amouzou A, 2007. Socio-Economic Differences in Health, Nutrition, and Population within Developing Countries. An Overview. Washington, DC: World Bank.
-
23.
Rothman KJ, Greenland S, Lash TL, 2008. Modern epidemiology. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
-
24.
Stoltzfus RJ, Chwaya HM, Tielsch JM, Schulze KJ, Albonico M, Savioli L, 1997. Epidemiology of iron deficiency anemia in Zanzibari schoolchildren: the importance of hookworms. Am J Clin Nutr 65: 153–159.
-
25.
Rückinger S, Von Kries R, Toschke A, 2009. An illustration of and programs estimating attributable fractions in large scale surveys considering multiple risk factors. BMC Med Res Methodol 9: 7.
-
26.
Menendez C, Fleming A, Alonso P, 2000. Malaria-related anemia. Parasitol Today 16: 469–476.
-
27.
George J, Yiannakis M, Main B, Devenish R, Anderson C, An US, Williams SM, Gibson RS, 2012. Genetic hemoglobin disorders, infection, and deficiencies of iron and vitamin A determine anemia in young Cambodian children. J Nutr 142: 781–787.
-
28.
Mansor SM, Molyneux M, Taylor T, Ward S, Wirima J, Edwards G, 1991. Effect of Plasmodium falciparum malaria infection on the plasma concentration of alpha 1-acid glycoprotein and the binding of quinine in Malawian children. Br J Clin Pharmacol 32: 317.
-
29.
Campbell DI, Murch SH, Elia M, Sullivan PB, Sanyang MS, Jobarteh B, Lunn PG, 2003. Chronic T cell-mediated enteropathy in rural west African children: relationship with nutritional status and small bowel function. Pediatr Res 54: 306–311.
-
30.
Humphrey JH, 2009. Child undernutrition, tropical enteropathy, toilets, and handwashing. Lancet 374: 1032–1035.
-
31.
Adazu K, Lindblade KA, Rosen DH, Odhiambo F, Ofware P, Kwach J, Van Eijk AM, Decock KM, Amornkul P, Karanja D, Vulule JM, Slutsker L, 2005. Health and demographic surveillance in rural western Kenya: a platform for evaluating interventions to reduce morbidity and mortality from infectious diseases. Am J Trop Med Hyg 73: 1151–1158.
-
32.
Calis JC, Phiri KS, Faragher EB, Brabin BJ, Bates I, Cuevas LE, de Haan RJ, Phiri AI, Malange P, Khoka M, Hulshof PJ, van Lieshout L, Beld MG, Teo YY, Rockett KA, Richardson A, Kwiatkowski DP, Molyneux ME, van Hensbroek MB, 2008. Severe anemia in Malawian children. N Engl J Med 358: 888–899.
-
33.
Thurnham DI, Mburu AS, Mwaniki DL, Muniu EM, Alumasa F, de Wagt A, 2008. Using plasma acute-phase protein concentrations to interpret nutritional biomarkers in apparently healthy HIV-1-seropositive Kenyan adults. Br J Nutr 100: 174–182.
-
34.
Friedman JF, Kanzaria HK, McGarvey ST, 2005. Human schistosomiasis and anemia: the relationship and potential mechanisms. Trends Parasitol 21: 386–392.
-
35.
Butler SE, Muok EM, Montgomery SP, Odhiambo K, Mwinzi PM, Secor WE, Karanja DM, 2012. Mechanism of anemia in Schistosoma mansoni-infected school children in western Kenya. Am J Trop Med Hyg 87: 862–867.
-
36.
Ezeamama AE, Friedman JF, Olveda RM, Acosta LP, Kurtis JD, Mor V, McGarvey ST, 2005. Functional significance of low-intensity polyparasite helminth infections in anemia. J Infect Dis 192: 2160–2170.
-
37.
Kung'u JK, Wright VJ, Haji HJ, Ramsan M, Goodman D, Tielsch JM, Bickle QD, Raynes JG, Stoltzfus RJ, 2009. Adjusting for the acute phase response is essential to interpret iron status indicators among young Zanzibari children prone to chronic malaria and helminth infections. J Nutr 139: 2124–2131.
-
38.
Oberhelman RA, Guerrero ES, Fernandez ML, Silio M, Mercado D, Comiskey N, Ihenacho G, Mera R, 1998. Correlations between intestinal parasitosis, physical growth, and psychomotor development among infants and children from rural Nicaragua. Am J Trop Med Hyg 58: 470–475.
-
39.
Kung'u JK, Goodman D, Haji HJ, Ramsan M, Wright VJ, Bickle QD, Tielsch JM, Raynes JG, Stoltzfus RJ, 2009. Early helminth infections are inversely related to anemia, malnutrition, and malaria and are not associated with inflammation in 6- to 23-month-old Zanzibari children. Am J Trop Med Hyg 81: 1062–1070.
-
40.
Evans WJ, Morley JE, Argiles J, Bales C, Baracos V, Guttridge D, Jatoi A, Kalantar-Zadeh K, Lochs H, Mantovani G, Marks D, Mitch WE, Muscaritoli M, Najand A, Ponikowski P, Rossi Fanelli F, Schambelan M, Schols A, Schuster M, Thomas D, Wolfe R, Anker SD, 2008. Cachexia: a new definition. Clin Nutr 27: 793–799.
-
41.
Leikin SL, Gallagher D, Kinney TR, Sloane D, Klug P, Rida W, 1989. Mortality in children and adolescents with sickle cell disease. Cooperative Study of Sickle Cell Disease. Pediatrics 84: 500–508.
-
42.
Williams TN, Obaro SK, 2011. Sickle cell disease and malaria morbidity: a tale with two tails. Trends Parasitol 27: 315–320.
-
43.
Veenemans J, Andang'o PE, Mbugi EV, Kraaijenhagen RJ, Mwaniki DL, Mockenhaupt FP, Roewer S, Olomi RM, Shao JF, Meer JW, 2008. α+-Thalassemia protects against anemia associated with asymptomatic malaria: evidence from community-based surveys in Tanzania and Kenya. J Infect Dis 198: 401.
-
44.
Clarke GM, Higgins TN, 2000. Laboratory investigation of hemoglobinopathies and thalassemias: review and update. Clin Chem 46: 1284.
-
45.
Rosales FJ, Ritter SJ, Zolfaghari R, Smith JE, Ross AC, 1996. Effects of acute inflammation on plasma retinol, retinol-binding protein, and its mRNA in the liver and kidneys of vitamin A-sufficient rats. J Lipid Res 37: 962–971.
-
46.
Knovich MA, Storey JA, Coffman LG, Torti SV, Torti FM, 2009. Ferritin for the clinician. Blood Rev 23: 95–104.
-
47.
Filteau SM, Willumsen JF, Sullivan K, Simmank K, Gamble M, 2000. Use of the retinol-binding protein: transthyretin ratio for assessment of vitamin A status during the acute-phase response. Br J Nutr 83: 513–520.
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Determinants of Anemia among Preschool Children in Rural, Western Kenya
Eric M. Foote
Eric M. Foote
Emory University School of Medicine, Hubert Department of Global Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia; Nutrition Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia; Safe Water and AIDS Project, Kisumu, Kenya; and Centre for Geographic Medicine Research-Coast, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Kilifi, Kenya; Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, Oxford, United Kingdom
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Kevin M. Sullivan
Kevin M. Sullivan
Emory University School of Medicine, Hubert Department of Global Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia; Nutrition Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia; Safe Water and AIDS Project, Kisumu, Kenya; and Centre for Geographic Medicine Research-Coast, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Kilifi, Kenya; Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, Oxford, United Kingdom
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Laird J. Ruth
Laird J. Ruth
Emory University School of Medicine, Hubert Department of Global Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia; Nutrition Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia; Safe Water and AIDS Project, Kisumu, Kenya; and Centre for Geographic Medicine Research-Coast, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Kilifi, Kenya; Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, Oxford, United Kingdom
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Jared Oremo
Jared Oremo
Emory University School of Medicine, Hubert Department of Global Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia; Nutrition Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia; Safe Water and AIDS Project, Kisumu, Kenya; and Centre for Geographic Medicine Research-Coast, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Kilifi, Kenya; Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, Oxford, United Kingdom
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Ibrahim Sadumah
Ibrahim Sadumah
Emory University School of Medicine, Hubert Department of Global Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia; Nutrition Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia; Safe Water and AIDS Project, Kisumu, Kenya; and Centre for Geographic Medicine Research-Coast, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Kilifi, Kenya; Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, Oxford, United Kingdom
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Thomas N. Williams
Thomas N. Williams
Emory University School of Medicine, Hubert Department of Global Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia; Nutrition Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia; Safe Water and AIDS Project, Kisumu, Kenya; and Centre for Geographic Medicine Research-Coast, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Kilifi, Kenya; Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, Oxford, United Kingdom
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Parminder S. Suchdev
Parminder S. Suchdev
Emory University School of Medicine, Hubert Department of Global Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia; Nutrition Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia; Safe Water and AIDS Project, Kisumu, Kenya; and Centre for Geographic Medicine Research-Coast, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Kilifi, Kenya; Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, Oxford, United Kingdom
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Although anemia in preschool children is most often attributed to iron deficiency, other nutritional, infectious, and genetic contributors are rarely concurrently measured. In a population-based, cross-sectional survey of 858 children 6–35 months of age in western Kenya, we measured hemoglobin, malaria, inflammation, sickle cell, α-thalassemia, iron deficiency, vitamin A deficiency, anthropometry, and socio-demographic characteristics. Anemia (Hb < 11 g/dL) and severe anemia (Hb < 7 g/dL) prevalence ratios (PRs) for each exposure were determined using multivariable modeling. Anemia (71.8%) and severe anemia (8.4%) were common. Characteristics most strongly associated with anemia were malaria (PR: 1.7; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.5–1.9), iron deficiency (1.3; 1.2–1.4), and homozygous α-thalassemia (1.3; 1.1–1.4). Characteristics associated with severe anemia were malaria (10.2; 3.5–29.3), inflammation (6.7; 2.3–19.4), and stunting (1.6; 1.0–2.4). Overall 16.8% of anemia cases were associated with malaria, 8.3% with iron deficiency, and 6.1% with inflammation. Interventions should address malaria, iron deficiency, and non-malarial infections to decrease the burden of anemia in this population.
Author Notes
Financial support: This work is supported in part by the National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences of the National Institutes of Health under award number UL1TR000454 and TL1TR000456, Emory University School of Medicine, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, and a senior fellowship from the Wellcome Trust, UK (091758).
Authors' addresses: Eric M. Foote, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, E-mail: efoote@uw.edu. Kevin M. Sullivan, Hubert Department of Global Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, E-mail: cdckms@sph.emory.edu. Laird J. Ruth and Parminder S. Suchdev, Nutrition Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, E-mails: lruth@cdc.gov and psuchdev@cdc.gov. Jared Oremo and Ibrahim Sadumah, Safe Water and AIDS Project, Kisumu, Kenya, E-mails: jerryoresh@yahoo.com and sirahimah@yahoo.com. Thomas N. Williams, Centre for Geographic Medicine Research-Coast, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Kilifi, Kenya, E-mail: twilliams@kilifi.kemri-wellcome.org.
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1.
Brabin BJ, Hakimi M, Pelletier D, 2001. Iron-deficiency anemia: reexamining the nature and magnitude of the public health problem. J Nutr 131: 604S–615S.
-
2.
WHO, 2008. Worldwide Prevalence of Anaemia 1993–2005: WHO Global Database on Anaemia. Geneva: WHO.
-
3.
WHO/CDC, 2007. Assessing the iron status of populations. Report of a Joint WHO/CDC Technical Consultation on the Assessment of Iron Status at the Population Level. Geneva, Switzerland, 6–8 April 2004. Geneva: WHO Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data, 1–35.
-
4.
Ezzati M, Lopez AD, Rodgers A, Murray CJ, 2005. Comparative Quantification of Health Risks: Global and Regional Burden of Diseases Attributable to Selected Major Risk Factors. Geneva: WHO.
-
5.
Cameron BM, Neufeld LM, 2011. Estimating the prevalence of iron deficiency in the first two years of life: technical and measurement issues. Nutr Rev 69 (Suppl 1): S49–S56.
-
6.
Black RE, Allen LH, Bhutta ZA, Caulfield LE, de Onis M, Ezzati M, Mathers C, Rivera J, 2008. Maternal and child undernutrition: global and regional exposures and health consequences. Lancet 371: 243–260.
-
7.
de Silva NR, Brooker S, Hotez PJ, Montresor A, Engels D, Savioli L, 2003. Soil-transmitted helminth infections: updating the global picture. Trends Parasitol 19: 547–551.
-
8.
Flint J, Harding RM, Boyce AJ, Clegg JB, 1998. The population genetics of the hemoglobinopathies. Baillieres Clin Haematol 11: 1–51.
-
9.
Stoltzfus RJ, 2001. Defining iron-deficiency anemia in public health terms: a time for reflection. J Nutr 131: 565S–567S.
-
10.
Stoltzfus RJ, Chway HM, Montresor A, Tielsch JM, Jape JK, Albonico M, Savioli L, 2004. Low dose daily iron supplementation improves iron status and appetite but not anemia, whereas quarterly anthelminthic treatment improves growth, appetite and anemia in Zanzibari preschool children. J Nutr 134: 348.
-
12.
CDC, 2007. Baseline Data from the Nyando Integrated Child Health and Education Project—Kenya. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 56: 1109–1113.
-
13.
Suchdev PS, Ruth L, Obure A, Were V, Ochieng C, Ogange L, Owuor M, Ngure F, Quick R, Juliao P, 2010. Monitoring the marketing, distribution, and use of Sprinkles micronutrient powders in rural western Kenya. Food Nutr Bull 31: 168–178.
-
14.
Suchdev PS, Ruth LJ, Woodruff BA, Mbakaya C, Mandava U, Flores-Ayala R, Jefferds ME, Quick R, 2012. Selling Sprinkles micronutrient powder reduces anemia, iron deficiency, and vitamin A deficiency in young children in western Kenya: a cluster-randomized controlled trial. AJCN 95: 1223–1230.
-
15.
Grant FKE, Suchdev PS, Flores-Ayala R, Cole CR, Ramakrishnan U, Ruth LJ, Martorell R, 2012. Correcting for inflammation changes estimates of iron deficiency among rural Kenyan preschool children. J Nutr 142: 105–111.
-
16.
WHO, 2001. Iron Deficiency Anemia, Assessment, Prevention and Control, A Guide for Program Managers. WHO: Geneva.
-
17.
Erhardt JG, Estes JE, Pfeiffer CM, Biesalski HK, Craft NE, 2004. Combined measurement of ferritin, soluble transferrin receptor, retinol binding protein, and C-reactive protein by an inexpensive, sensitive, and simple sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay technique. J Nutr 134: 3127–3132.
-
18.
Guyatt GH, Oxman AD, Ali M, Willan A, McIlroy W, Patterson C, 1992. Laboratory diagnosis of iron-deficiency anemia. J Gen Intern Med 7: 145–153.
-
19.
Engle-Stone R, Haskell MJ, Ndjebayi AO, Nankap M, Erhardt JG, Gimou MM, Brown KH, 2011. Plasma retinol-binding protein predicts plasma retinol concentration in both infected and uninfected Cameroonian women and children. J Nutr 141: 2233–2241.
-
20.
Williams TN, Wambua S, Uyoga S, Macharia A, Mwacharo JK, Newton CRJC, Maitland K, 2005. Both heterozygous and homozygous α+ thalassemias protect against severe and fatal Plasmodium falciparum malaria on the coast of Kenya. Blood 106: 368–371.
-
21.
Waterfall CM, Cobb BD, 2001. Single tube genotyping of sickle cell anemia using PCR-based SNP analysis. Nucleic Acids Res 29: e119.
-
22.
Gwatkin DR, Rutstein S, Johnson K, Suliman E, Wagstaff A, Amouzou A, 2007. Socio-Economic Differences in Health, Nutrition, and Population within Developing Countries. An Overview. Washington, DC: World Bank.
-
23.
Rothman KJ, Greenland S, Lash TL, 2008. Modern epidemiology. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
-
24.
Stoltzfus RJ, Chwaya HM, Tielsch JM, Schulze KJ, Albonico M, Savioli L, 1997. Epidemiology of iron deficiency anemia in Zanzibari schoolchildren: the importance of hookworms. Am J Clin Nutr 65: 153–159.
-
25.
Rückinger S, Von Kries R, Toschke A, 2009. An illustration of and programs estimating attributable fractions in large scale surveys considering multiple risk factors. BMC Med Res Methodol 9: 7.
-
26.
Menendez C, Fleming A, Alonso P, 2000. Malaria-related anemia. Parasitol Today 16: 469–476.
-
27.
George J, Yiannakis M, Main B, Devenish R, Anderson C, An US, Williams SM, Gibson RS, 2012. Genetic hemoglobin disorders, infection, and deficiencies of iron and vitamin A determine anemia in young Cambodian children. J Nutr 142: 781–787.
-
28.
Mansor SM, Molyneux M, Taylor T, Ward S, Wirima J, Edwards G, 1991. Effect of Plasmodium falciparum malaria infection on the plasma concentration of alpha 1-acid glycoprotein and the binding of quinine in Malawian children. Br J Clin Pharmacol 32: 317.
-
29.
Campbell DI, Murch SH, Elia M, Sullivan PB, Sanyang MS, Jobarteh B, Lunn PG, 2003. Chronic T cell-mediated enteropathy in rural west African children: relationship with nutritional status and small bowel function. Pediatr Res 54: 306–311.
-
30.
Humphrey JH, 2009. Child undernutrition, tropical enteropathy, toilets, and handwashing. Lancet 374: 1032–1035.
-
31.
Adazu K, Lindblade KA, Rosen DH, Odhiambo F, Ofware P, Kwach J, Van Eijk AM, Decock KM, Amornkul P, Karanja D, Vulule JM, Slutsker L, 2005. Health and demographic surveillance in rural western Kenya: a platform for evaluating interventions to reduce morbidity and mortality from infectious diseases. Am J Trop Med Hyg 73: 1151–1158.
-
32.
Calis JC, Phiri KS, Faragher EB, Brabin BJ, Bates I, Cuevas LE, de Haan RJ, Phiri AI, Malange P, Khoka M, Hulshof PJ, van Lieshout L, Beld MG, Teo YY, Rockett KA, Richardson A, Kwiatkowski DP, Molyneux ME, van Hensbroek MB, 2008. Severe anemia in Malawian children. N Engl J Med 358: 888–899.
-
33.
Thurnham DI, Mburu AS, Mwaniki DL, Muniu EM, Alumasa F, de Wagt A, 2008. Using plasma acute-phase protein concentrations to interpret nutritional biomarkers in apparently healthy HIV-1-seropositive Kenyan adults. Br J Nutr 100: 174–182.
-
34.
Friedman JF, Kanzaria HK, McGarvey ST, 2005. Human schistosomiasis and anemia: the relationship and potential mechanisms. Trends Parasitol 21: 386–392.
-
35.
Butler SE, Muok EM, Montgomery SP, Odhiambo K, Mwinzi PM, Secor WE, Karanja DM, 2012. Mechanism of anemia in Schistosoma mansoni-infected school children in western Kenya. Am J Trop Med Hyg 87: 862–867.
-
36.
Ezeamama AE, Friedman JF, Olveda RM, Acosta LP, Kurtis JD, Mor V, McGarvey ST, 2005. Functional significance of low-intensity polyparasite helminth infections in anemia. J Infect Dis 192: 2160–2170.
-
37.
Kung'u JK, Wright VJ, Haji HJ, Ramsan M, Goodman D, Tielsch JM, Bickle QD, Raynes JG, Stoltzfus RJ, 2009. Adjusting for the acute phase response is essential to interpret iron status indicators among young Zanzibari children prone to chronic malaria and helminth infections. J Nutr 139: 2124–2131.
-
38.
Oberhelman RA, Guerrero ES, Fernandez ML, Silio M, Mercado D, Comiskey N, Ihenacho G, Mera R, 1998. Correlations between intestinal parasitosis, physical growth, and psychomotor development among infants and children from rural Nicaragua. Am J Trop Med Hyg 58: 470–475.
-
39.
Kung'u JK, Goodman D, Haji HJ, Ramsan M, Wright VJ, Bickle QD, Tielsch JM, Raynes JG, Stoltzfus RJ, 2009. Early helminth infections are inversely related to anemia, malnutrition, and malaria and are not associated with inflammation in 6- to 23-month-old Zanzibari children. Am J Trop Med Hyg 81: 1062–1070.
-
40.
Evans WJ, Morley JE, Argiles J, Bales C, Baracos V, Guttridge D, Jatoi A, Kalantar-Zadeh K, Lochs H, Mantovani G, Marks D, Mitch WE, Muscaritoli M, Najand A, Ponikowski P, Rossi Fanelli F, Schambelan M, Schols A, Schuster M, Thomas D, Wolfe R, Anker SD, 2008. Cachexia: a new definition. Clin Nutr 27: 793–799.
-
41.
Leikin SL, Gallagher D, Kinney TR, Sloane D, Klug P, Rida W, 1989. Mortality in children and adolescents with sickle cell disease. Cooperative Study of Sickle Cell Disease. Pediatrics 84: 500–508.
-
42.
Williams TN, Obaro SK, 2011. Sickle cell disease and malaria morbidity: a tale with two tails. Trends Parasitol 27: 315–320.
-
43.
Veenemans J, Andang'o PE, Mbugi EV, Kraaijenhagen RJ, Mwaniki DL, Mockenhaupt FP, Roewer S, Olomi RM, Shao JF, Meer JW, 2008. α+-Thalassemia protects against anemia associated with asymptomatic malaria: evidence from community-based surveys in Tanzania and Kenya. J Infect Dis 198: 401.
-
44.
Clarke GM, Higgins TN, 2000. Laboratory investigation of hemoglobinopathies and thalassemias: review and update. Clin Chem 46: 1284.
-
45.
Rosales FJ, Ritter SJ, Zolfaghari R, Smith JE, Ross AC, 1996. Effects of acute inflammation on plasma retinol, retinol-binding protein, and its mRNA in the liver and kidneys of vitamin A-sufficient rats. J Lipid Res 37: 962–971.
-
46.
Knovich MA, Storey JA, Coffman LG, Torti SV, Torti FM, 2009. Ferritin for the clinician. Blood Rev 23: 95–104.
-
47.
Filteau SM, Willumsen JF, Sullivan K, Simmank K, Gamble M, 2000. Use of the retinol-binding protein: transthyretin ratio for assessment of vitamin A status during the acute-phase response. Br J Nutr 83: 513–520.
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