Author:
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1.
World Health Organization, 2008. World Malaria Report. WHO Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data 25. Geneva: World Health Organization.
-
2.
Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria, 2011. Available at: http://www.theglobalfund.org/en/partnershipforum/2011/.
-
3.
Amin AA, Walley T, Kokwaro GO, Winstanley PA, Snow RW, 2007. Commentary: reconciling national treatment policies and drug regulation in Kenya. Health Policy Plan 22: 111–112.
-
4.
Amin A, Zurovac D, Kangwana B, Greenfield J, Otieno D, Akhwale W, Snow R, 2007. The challenges of changing national malaria drug policy to artemisinin-based combinations in Kenya. Malar J 6: 72.
-
5.
Zhou G, Afrane YA, Vardo-Zalik A, Atieli H, Zhong D, Wamae P, Himeidan YE, Minakawa N, Githeko AK, Yan G, 2011. Changing patterns of malaria epidemiology between 2002 and 2010 in western Kenya: the fall and rise of malaria. PLoS ONE 6: e20318.
-
6.
World Health Organization, 2007. Insecticide Treated Mosquito Nets: A Position Statement. Geneva: World Health Organization.
-
7.
Aregawi M, Cibulskis R, Otten M, Williams R, Dye C, 2008. World Malaria Report, 2008. Geneva: World Health Organization.
-
8.
Roll Back Malaria, 2009. Malaria Elimination in Africa. Available at: http://www.rbm.who.int/globaladvocacy/eventsarchive.html.
-
9.
Nafo-Traore F, Judd EJ, Okwo-Bele J, 2005. Protecting Vulnerable Groups in Malaria-Endemic Areas in Africa through Accelerated Deployment of Insecticide-Treated Nets: A Joint WHO-UNICEF Statement. Geneva: World Health Organization. WHO/HTM/RBM/2005.57: 2.
-
10.
Roll Back Malaria, 2005. Scaling Up Insecticide Treated Netting Programmes in Africa: A Strategic Framework for Coordinated National Action. Geneva: World Health Organization.
-
11.
Bhattarai A, Ali AS, Kachur SP, Martensson A, Abbas AK, Khatib R, Al-Mafazy AW, Ramsan M, Rotllant G, Gerstenmaier JF, Molteni F, Abdulla S, Montgomery SM, Kaneko A, Bjorkman A, 2007. Impact of artemisinin-based combination therapy and insecticide-treated nets on malaria burden in Zanzibar. PLoS Med 4: e309.
-
12.
O'Meara WP, Bejon P, Mwangi TW, Okiro EA, Peshu N, Snow RW, Newton CR, Marsh K, 2008. Effect of a fall in malaria transmission on morbidity and mortality in Kilifi, Kenya. Lancet 372: 1555–1562.
-
13.
Gatei W, Kariuki S, Hawley W, ter Kuile F, Terlouw D, Phillips-Howard P, Nahlen B, Gimnig J, Lindblade K, Walker E, Hamel M, Crawford S, Williamson J, Slutsker L, Shi Y, 2010. Effects of transmission reduction by insecticide-treated bed nets (ITNs) on parasite genetics population structure: I. The genetic diversity of Plasmodium falciparum parasites by microsatellite markers in western Kenya. Malar J 9: 353.
-
14.
Laufer MK, Plowe CV, 2004. Withdrawing antimalarial drugs: impact on parasite resistance and implications for malaria treatment policies. Drug Resist Updat 7: 279–288.
-
15.
Bwijo B, Kaneko A, Takechi M, Zungu IL, Moriyama Y, Lum JK, Tsukahara T, Mita T, Takahashi N, Bergqvist Y, Bjorkman A, Kobayakawa T, 2003. High prevalence of quintuple mutant dhfr/dhps genes in Plasmodium infections seven years after introduction of sulfadoxine and pyrimethamine as first line treatment in Malawi. Acta Trop 85: 363–373.
-
16.
Wellems T, Plowe C, 2001. Chloroquine-resistant malaria. J Infect Dis 184: 770–776.
-
17.
White NJ, 2008. Qinghaosu (artemisinin): the price of success. Science 320: 330–334.
-
18.
Wongsrichanalai C, Pickard AL, Wernsdorfer WH, Meshnick SR, 2002. Epidemiology of drug-resistant malaria. Lancet Infect Dis 2: 209–218.
-
19.
Fidock DA, Nomura T, Talley AK, Cooper RA, Dzekunov SM, Ferdig MT, Ursos LM, Sidhu AB, Naude B, Deitsch KW, Su XZ, Wootton JC, Roepe PD, Wellems TE, 2000. Mutations in the P. falciparum digestive vacuole transmembrane protein PfCRT and evidence for their role in chloroquine resistance. Mol Cell 6: 861–871.
-
20.
Hayton K, Su XZ, 2004. Genetic and biochemical aspects of drug resistance in malaria parasites. Curr Drug Targets Infect Disord 4: 1–10.
-
21.
Warhurst DC, 1999. Drug resistance in Plasmodium falciparum malaria. Infection 27: S55–S58.
-
22.
Ouellette M, 2001. Biochemical and molecular mechanisms of drug resistance in parasites. Trop Med Int Health 6: 874–876.
-
23.
Dondorp AM, Nosten F, Yi P, Das D, Phyo AP, Tarning J, Lwin KM, Ariey F, Hanpithakpong W, Lee SJ, Ringwald P, Silamut K, Imwong M, Chotivanich K, Lim P, Herdman T, An SS, Yeung S, Singhasivanon P, Day NP, Lindegardh N, Socheat D, White NJ, 2009. Artemisinin resistance in Plasmodium falciparum malaria. N Engl J Med 361: 455–467.
-
24.
Dondorp AM, Yeung S, White L, Nguon C, Day NP, Socheat D, von Seidlein L, 2010. Artemisinin resistance: current status and scenarios for containment. Nat Rev Microbiol 8: 272–280.
-
25.
Bonizzoni M, Afrane Y, Baliraine FN, Amenya DA, Githeko AK, Yan G, 2009. Genetic structure of Plasmodium falciparum populations between lowland and highland sites and antimalarial drug resistance in western Kenya. Infect Genet Evol 9: 806–812.
-
26.
Ndenga B, Githeko A, Omukunda E, Munyekenye G, Atieli H, Wamai P, Mbogo C, Minakawa N, Zhou G, Yan G, 2006. Population dynamics of malaria vectors in western Kenya highlands. J Med Entomol 43: 200–206.
-
27.
Wooden J, Kyes S, Sibley CH, 1993. PCR and strain identification in Plasmodium falciparum. Parasitol Today 9: 303–305.
-
28.
Singh B, Bobogare A, Cox-Singh J, Snounou G, Abdullah MS, Rahman HA, 1999. A genus- and species-specific nested polymerase chain reaction malaria detection assay for epidemiologic studies. Am J Trop Med Hyg 60: 687–692.
-
29.
Anderson TJ, Su XZ, Bockarie M, Lagog M, Day KP, 1999. Twelve microsatellite markers for characterization of Plasmodium falciparum from finger-prick blood samples. Parasitology 119: 113–125.
-
30.
Oetting WS, Lee HK, Flanders DJ, Wiesner GL, Sellers TA, King RA, 1995. Linkage analysis with multiplexed short tandem repeat polymorphisms using infrared fluorescence and M13 tailed primers. Genomics 30: 450–458.
-
31.
Zhong D, Afrane Y, Githeko A, Yang Z, Cui L, Menge DM, Temu EA, Yan G, 2007. Plasmodium falciparum genetic diversity in western Kenya highlands. Am J Trop Med Hyg 77: 1043–1050.
-
32.
Anderson TJ, Haubold B, Williams JT, Estrada-Franco J, Richardson L, Mollinedo R, Bockarie M, Mokili J, Mharakurwa S, French N, Whitworth J, Velez ID, Brockman AH, Nosten F, Ferreira MU, Day KP, 2000. Microsatellite markers reveal a spectrum of population structures in the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum. Mol Biol Evol 17: 1467–1482.
-
33.
Vardo AM, Schall JJ, 2007. Clonal diversity of a lizard malaria parasite, Plasmodium mexicanum, in its vertebrate host, the western fence lizard: role of variation in transmission intensity over time and space. Mol Ecol 16: 2712–2720.
-
34.
Ferreira MU, Nair S, Hyunh TV, Kawamoto F, Anderson TJ, 2002. Microsatellite characterization of Plasmodium falciparum from cerebral and uncomplicated malaria patients in southern Vietnam. J Clin Microbiol 40: 1854–1857.
-
35.
Zhong D, Afrane Y, Githeko A, Cui L, Menge D, Yan G, 2008. Molecular epidemiology of drug-resistant malaria in western Kenya highlands. BMC Infect Dis 8: 105.
-
36.
Plowe CV, Cortese JF, Djimde A, Nwanyanwu OC, Watkins WM, Winstanley PA, Estrada-Franco J, Mollinedo RE, Avila JC, Cespedes JL, Carter D, Doumbo OK, 1997. Mutations in Plasmodium falciparum dihydrofolate reductase and dihydropteroate synthase and epidemiologic patterns of pyrimethamine-sulfadoxine use and resistance. J Infect Dis 176: 1590–1596.
-
37.
Plowe CV, Djimde A, Bouare M, Doumbo O, Wellems TE, 1995. Pyrimethamine and proguanil resistance-conferring mutations in Plasmodium falciparum dihydrofolate reductase: polymerase chain reaction methods for surveillance in Africa. Am J Trop Med Hyg 52: 565–568.
-
38.
Peakall R, Smouse PE, 2006. Genalex 6: genetic analysis in Excel. Population genetic software for teaching and research. Mol Ecol Notes 6: 288–295.
-
39.
Lewis PO, Zaykin D, 2002. Genetic Data Analysis: Computer Program for the Analysis of Allelic Data. Version 1.1. Available at: http://hydrodictyon.eeb.uconn.edu/people/plewis/software.php.
-
40.
Piry S, Luikart G, Cornuet JM, 1999. BOTTLENECK: a computer program for detecting recent reductions in the effective population size using allele frequency data. J Hered 90: 502–503.
-
41.
Cornuet JM, Luikart G, 1996. Description and power analysis of two tests for detecting recent population bottlenecks from allele frequency data. Genetics 144: 2001–2014.
-
42.
Haubold B, Hudson RR, 2000. LIAN 3.0: detecting linkage disequilibrium in multilocus data linkage analysis. Bioinformatics 9: 847–848.
-
43.
Durand P, Michalakis Y, Cestier S, Oury B, Leclerc MC, Tibayrenc M, Renaud F, 2003. Significant linkage disequilibrium and high genetic diversity in a population of Plasmodium falciparum from an area (Republic of The Congo) highly endemic for malaria. Am J Trop Med Hyg 68: 345–349.
-
44.
Abdel-Wahab A, Abdel-Muhsin AA, Ali E, Suleiman S, Ahmed S, Walliker D, Babiker HA, 2002. Dynamics of gametocytes among Plasmodium falciparum clones in natural infections in an area of highly seasonal transmission. J Infect Dis 185: 1838–1842.
-
45.
Malisa A, Pearce R, Abdulla S, Mshinda H, Kachur P, Bloland P, Roper C, 2010. Drug coverage in treatment of malaria and the consequences for resistance evolution: evidence from the use of sulphadoxine/pyrimethamine. Malar J 9: 190.
-
46.
Zalis MG, Pang L, Silveira MS, Milhous WK, Wirth DF, 1998. Characterization of Plasmodium falciparum isolated from the Amazon region of Brazil: evidence for quinine resistance. Am J Trop Med Hyg 58: 630–637.
-
47.
Humphreys GS, Merinopoulos I, Ahmed J, Whitty CJ, Mutabingwa TK, Sutherland CJ, Hallett RL, 2007. Amodiaquine and artemether-lumefantrine select distinct alleles of the Plasmodium falciparum mdr1 gene in Tanzanian children treated for uncomplicated malaria. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 51: 991–997.
-
48.
Sidhu AB, Valderramos SG, Fidock DA, 2005. pfmdr1 mutations contribute to quinine resistance and enhance mefloquine and artemisinin sensitivity in Plasmodium falciparum. Mol Microbiol 57: 913–926.
-
49.
Ogbonna A, Uneke CJ, 2008. Artemisinin-based combination therapy for uncomplicated malaria in sub-Saharan Africa: the efficacy, safety, resistance and policy implementation since Abuja 2000. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 102: 621–627.
-
50.
Dokomajilar C, Nsobya SL, Greenhouse B, Rosenthal PJ, Dorsey G, 2006. Selection of Plasmodium falciparum pfmdr1 alleles following therapy with artemether-lumefantrine in an area of Uganda where malaria is highly endemic. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 50: 1893–1895.
-
51.
Happi CT, Gbotosho GO, Folarin OA, Bolaji OM, Sowunmi A, Kyle DE, Milhous W, Wirth DF, Oduola AM, 2006. Association between mutations in Plasmodium falciparum chloroquine resistance transporter and P. falciparum multidrug resistance 1 genes and in vivo amodiaquine resistance in P. falciparum malaria-infected children in Nigeria. Am J Trop Med Hyg 75: 155–161.
-
52.
Sisowath C, Stromberg J, Martensson A, Msellem M, Obondo C, Bjorkman A, Gil JP, 2005. In vivo selection of Plasmodium falciparum pfmdr1 86N coding alleles by artemether-lumefantrine (Coartem). J Infect Dis 191: 1014–1017.
-
53.
Kangwana BB, Njogu J, Wasunna B, Kedenge SV, Memusi DN, Goodman CA, Zurovac D, Snow RW, 2009. Malaria drug shortages in Kenya: a major failure to provide access to effective treatment. Am J Trop Med Hyg 80: 737–738.
-
54.
Mokuolu OA, Okoro EO, Ayetoro SO, Adewara AA, 2007. Effect of artemisinin-based treatment policy on consumption pattern of antimalarials. Am J Trop Med Hyg 76: 7–11.
-
55.
Watsierah CA, Jura WG, Oyugi H, Abong'o B, Ouma C, 2010. Factors determining anti-malarial drug use in a peri-urban population from malaria holoendemic region of western Kenya. Malar J 9: 295.
| Past two years | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 21 | 21 | 5 |
| Full Text Views | 362 | 117 | 0 |
| PDF Downloads | 90 | 28 | 0 |
Alterations in Plasmodium falciparum Genetic Structure Two Years after Increased Malaria Control Efforts in Western Kenya
Anne M. Vardo-Zalik
Anne M. Vardo-Zalik
Program in Public Health, College of Health Sciences, University of California Irvine, Irvine, California; Climate and Human Health Research Unit, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Kisumu, Kenya
Search for other papers by Anne M. Vardo-Zalik in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by Anne M. Vardo-Zalik in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Guofa Zhou
Guofa Zhou
Program in Public Health, College of Health Sciences, University of California Irvine, Irvine, California; Climate and Human Health Research Unit, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Kisumu, Kenya
Search for other papers by Guofa Zhou in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by Guofa Zhou in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Daibin Zhong
Daibin Zhong
Program in Public Health, College of Health Sciences, University of California Irvine, Irvine, California; Climate and Human Health Research Unit, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Kisumu, Kenya
Search for other papers by Daibin Zhong in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by Daibin Zhong in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Yaw A. Afrane
Yaw A. Afrane
Program in Public Health, College of Health Sciences, University of California Irvine, Irvine, California; Climate and Human Health Research Unit, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Kisumu, Kenya
Search for other papers by Yaw A. Afrane in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by Yaw A. Afrane in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Andrew K. Githeko
Andrew K. Githeko
Program in Public Health, College of Health Sciences, University of California Irvine, Irvine, California; Climate and Human Health Research Unit, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Kisumu, Kenya
Search for other papers by Andrew K. Githeko in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by Andrew K. Githeko in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Guiyun Yan
Guiyun Yan
Program in Public Health, College of Health Sciences, University of California Irvine, Irvine, California; Climate and Human Health Research Unit, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Kisumu, Kenya
Search for other papers by Guiyun Yan in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by Guiyun Yan in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
The impact of malaria intervention measures (insecticide-treated net use and artemisinin combination therapy) on malaria genetics was investigated at two sites in western Kenya: an endemic lowland and an epidemic highland. The genetic structure of the parasite population was assessed by using microsatellites, and the prevalence of drug-resistant mutations was examined by using the polymerase chain reaction–restriction fragment length polymorphism method. Two years after intervention, genetic diversity remained high in both populations. A significant decrease in the prevalence of quintuple mutations conferring resistance to sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine was detected in both populations, but the mutation prevalence at codon 1246 of the Plasmodium falciparum multidrug resistance 1 gene had increased in the highland population. The decrease in sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine–resistant mutants is encouraging, but the increase in P. falciparum multidrug resistance 1 gene mutations is worrisome because these mutations are linked to resistance to other antimalarial drugs. In addition, the high level of genetic diversity observed after intervention suggests transmission is still high in each population.
Author Notes
Financial support: This study was supported by the National Institute of Health grants R01 AI050243 and D43 TW001505 to Guiyun Yan.
Authors' addresses: Anne M. Vardo-Zalik, The Pennsylvania State University, York, PA, E-mail: amv12@psu.edu. Guofa Zhou, Daibin Zhong, and Guiyun Yan, Program in Public Health, College of Health Sciences, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA, E-mails: zhoug@uci.edu, dzhong@uci.edu, and guiyuny@uci.edu. Yaw A. Afrane and Andrew K. Githeko, Climate and Human Health Research Unit, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Kisumu, Kenya, E-mails: yaw_afrane@yahoo.com and githeko@yahoo.com.
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1.
World Health Organization, 2008. World Malaria Report. WHO Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data 25. Geneva: World Health Organization.
-
2.
Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria, 2011. Available at: http://www.theglobalfund.org/en/partnershipforum/2011/.
-
3.
Amin AA, Walley T, Kokwaro GO, Winstanley PA, Snow RW, 2007. Commentary: reconciling national treatment policies and drug regulation in Kenya. Health Policy Plan 22: 111–112.
-
4.
Amin A, Zurovac D, Kangwana B, Greenfield J, Otieno D, Akhwale W, Snow R, 2007. The challenges of changing national malaria drug policy to artemisinin-based combinations in Kenya. Malar J 6: 72.
-
5.
Zhou G, Afrane YA, Vardo-Zalik A, Atieli H, Zhong D, Wamae P, Himeidan YE, Minakawa N, Githeko AK, Yan G, 2011. Changing patterns of malaria epidemiology between 2002 and 2010 in western Kenya: the fall and rise of malaria. PLoS ONE 6: e20318.
-
6.
World Health Organization, 2007. Insecticide Treated Mosquito Nets: A Position Statement. Geneva: World Health Organization.
-
7.
Aregawi M, Cibulskis R, Otten M, Williams R, Dye C, 2008. World Malaria Report, 2008. Geneva: World Health Organization.
-
8.
Roll Back Malaria, 2009. Malaria Elimination in Africa. Available at: http://www.rbm.who.int/globaladvocacy/eventsarchive.html.
-
9.
Nafo-Traore F, Judd EJ, Okwo-Bele J, 2005. Protecting Vulnerable Groups in Malaria-Endemic Areas in Africa through Accelerated Deployment of Insecticide-Treated Nets: A Joint WHO-UNICEF Statement. Geneva: World Health Organization. WHO/HTM/RBM/2005.57: 2.
-
10.
Roll Back Malaria, 2005. Scaling Up Insecticide Treated Netting Programmes in Africa: A Strategic Framework for Coordinated National Action. Geneva: World Health Organization.
-
11.
Bhattarai A, Ali AS, Kachur SP, Martensson A, Abbas AK, Khatib R, Al-Mafazy AW, Ramsan M, Rotllant G, Gerstenmaier JF, Molteni F, Abdulla S, Montgomery SM, Kaneko A, Bjorkman A, 2007. Impact of artemisinin-based combination therapy and insecticide-treated nets on malaria burden in Zanzibar. PLoS Med 4: e309.
-
12.
O'Meara WP, Bejon P, Mwangi TW, Okiro EA, Peshu N, Snow RW, Newton CR, Marsh K, 2008. Effect of a fall in malaria transmission on morbidity and mortality in Kilifi, Kenya. Lancet 372: 1555–1562.
-
13.
Gatei W, Kariuki S, Hawley W, ter Kuile F, Terlouw D, Phillips-Howard P, Nahlen B, Gimnig J, Lindblade K, Walker E, Hamel M, Crawford S, Williamson J, Slutsker L, Shi Y, 2010. Effects of transmission reduction by insecticide-treated bed nets (ITNs) on parasite genetics population structure: I. The genetic diversity of Plasmodium falciparum parasites by microsatellite markers in western Kenya. Malar J 9: 353.
-
14.
Laufer MK, Plowe CV, 2004. Withdrawing antimalarial drugs: impact on parasite resistance and implications for malaria treatment policies. Drug Resist Updat 7: 279–288.
-
15.
Bwijo B, Kaneko A, Takechi M, Zungu IL, Moriyama Y, Lum JK, Tsukahara T, Mita T, Takahashi N, Bergqvist Y, Bjorkman A, Kobayakawa T, 2003. High prevalence of quintuple mutant dhfr/dhps genes in Plasmodium infections seven years after introduction of sulfadoxine and pyrimethamine as first line treatment in Malawi. Acta Trop 85: 363–373.
-
16.
Wellems T, Plowe C, 2001. Chloroquine-resistant malaria. J Infect Dis 184: 770–776.
-
17.
White NJ, 2008. Qinghaosu (artemisinin): the price of success. Science 320: 330–334.
-
18.
Wongsrichanalai C, Pickard AL, Wernsdorfer WH, Meshnick SR, 2002. Epidemiology of drug-resistant malaria. Lancet Infect Dis 2: 209–218.
-
19.
Fidock DA, Nomura T, Talley AK, Cooper RA, Dzekunov SM, Ferdig MT, Ursos LM, Sidhu AB, Naude B, Deitsch KW, Su XZ, Wootton JC, Roepe PD, Wellems TE, 2000. Mutations in the P. falciparum digestive vacuole transmembrane protein PfCRT and evidence for their role in chloroquine resistance. Mol Cell 6: 861–871.
-
20.
Hayton K, Su XZ, 2004. Genetic and biochemical aspects of drug resistance in malaria parasites. Curr Drug Targets Infect Disord 4: 1–10.
-
21.
Warhurst DC, 1999. Drug resistance in Plasmodium falciparum malaria. Infection 27: S55–S58.
-
22.
Ouellette M, 2001. Biochemical and molecular mechanisms of drug resistance in parasites. Trop Med Int Health 6: 874–876.
-
23.
Dondorp AM, Nosten F, Yi P, Das D, Phyo AP, Tarning J, Lwin KM, Ariey F, Hanpithakpong W, Lee SJ, Ringwald P, Silamut K, Imwong M, Chotivanich K, Lim P, Herdman T, An SS, Yeung S, Singhasivanon P, Day NP, Lindegardh N, Socheat D, White NJ, 2009. Artemisinin resistance in Plasmodium falciparum malaria. N Engl J Med 361: 455–467.
-
24.
Dondorp AM, Yeung S, White L, Nguon C, Day NP, Socheat D, von Seidlein L, 2010. Artemisinin resistance: current status and scenarios for containment. Nat Rev Microbiol 8: 272–280.
-
25.
Bonizzoni M, Afrane Y, Baliraine FN, Amenya DA, Githeko AK, Yan G, 2009. Genetic structure of Plasmodium falciparum populations between lowland and highland sites and antimalarial drug resistance in western Kenya. Infect Genet Evol 9: 806–812.
-
26.
Ndenga B, Githeko A, Omukunda E, Munyekenye G, Atieli H, Wamai P, Mbogo C, Minakawa N, Zhou G, Yan G, 2006. Population dynamics of malaria vectors in western Kenya highlands. J Med Entomol 43: 200–206.
-
27.
Wooden J, Kyes S, Sibley CH, 1993. PCR and strain identification in Plasmodium falciparum. Parasitol Today 9: 303–305.
-
28.
Singh B, Bobogare A, Cox-Singh J, Snounou G, Abdullah MS, Rahman HA, 1999. A genus- and species-specific nested polymerase chain reaction malaria detection assay for epidemiologic studies. Am J Trop Med Hyg 60: 687–692.
-
29.
Anderson TJ, Su XZ, Bockarie M, Lagog M, Day KP, 1999. Twelve microsatellite markers for characterization of Plasmodium falciparum from finger-prick blood samples. Parasitology 119: 113–125.
-
30.
Oetting WS, Lee HK, Flanders DJ, Wiesner GL, Sellers TA, King RA, 1995. Linkage analysis with multiplexed short tandem repeat polymorphisms using infrared fluorescence and M13 tailed primers. Genomics 30: 450–458.
-
31.
Zhong D, Afrane Y, Githeko A, Yang Z, Cui L, Menge DM, Temu EA, Yan G, 2007. Plasmodium falciparum genetic diversity in western Kenya highlands. Am J Trop Med Hyg 77: 1043–1050.
-
32.
Anderson TJ, Haubold B, Williams JT, Estrada-Franco J, Richardson L, Mollinedo R, Bockarie M, Mokili J, Mharakurwa S, French N, Whitworth J, Velez ID, Brockman AH, Nosten F, Ferreira MU, Day KP, 2000. Microsatellite markers reveal a spectrum of population structures in the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum. Mol Biol Evol 17: 1467–1482.
-
33.
Vardo AM, Schall JJ, 2007. Clonal diversity of a lizard malaria parasite, Plasmodium mexicanum, in its vertebrate host, the western fence lizard: role of variation in transmission intensity over time and space. Mol Ecol 16: 2712–2720.
-
34.
Ferreira MU, Nair S, Hyunh TV, Kawamoto F, Anderson TJ, 2002. Microsatellite characterization of Plasmodium falciparum from cerebral and uncomplicated malaria patients in southern Vietnam. J Clin Microbiol 40: 1854–1857.
-
35.
Zhong D, Afrane Y, Githeko A, Cui L, Menge D, Yan G, 2008. Molecular epidemiology of drug-resistant malaria in western Kenya highlands. BMC Infect Dis 8: 105.
-
36.
Plowe CV, Cortese JF, Djimde A, Nwanyanwu OC, Watkins WM, Winstanley PA, Estrada-Franco J, Mollinedo RE, Avila JC, Cespedes JL, Carter D, Doumbo OK, 1997. Mutations in Plasmodium falciparum dihydrofolate reductase and dihydropteroate synthase and epidemiologic patterns of pyrimethamine-sulfadoxine use and resistance. J Infect Dis 176: 1590–1596.
-
37.
Plowe CV, Djimde A, Bouare M, Doumbo O, Wellems TE, 1995. Pyrimethamine and proguanil resistance-conferring mutations in Plasmodium falciparum dihydrofolate reductase: polymerase chain reaction methods for surveillance in Africa. Am J Trop Med Hyg 52: 565–568.
-
38.
Peakall R, Smouse PE, 2006. Genalex 6: genetic analysis in Excel. Population genetic software for teaching and research. Mol Ecol Notes 6: 288–295.
-
39.
Lewis PO, Zaykin D, 2002. Genetic Data Analysis: Computer Program for the Analysis of Allelic Data. Version 1.1. Available at: http://hydrodictyon.eeb.uconn.edu/people/plewis/software.php.
-
40.
Piry S, Luikart G, Cornuet JM, 1999. BOTTLENECK: a computer program for detecting recent reductions in the effective population size using allele frequency data. J Hered 90: 502–503.
-
41.
Cornuet JM, Luikart G, 1996. Description and power analysis of two tests for detecting recent population bottlenecks from allele frequency data. Genetics 144: 2001–2014.
-
42.
Haubold B, Hudson RR, 2000. LIAN 3.0: detecting linkage disequilibrium in multilocus data linkage analysis. Bioinformatics 9: 847–848.
-
43.
Durand P, Michalakis Y, Cestier S, Oury B, Leclerc MC, Tibayrenc M, Renaud F, 2003. Significant linkage disequilibrium and high genetic diversity in a population of Plasmodium falciparum from an area (Republic of The Congo) highly endemic for malaria. Am J Trop Med Hyg 68: 345–349.
-
44.
Abdel-Wahab A, Abdel-Muhsin AA, Ali E, Suleiman S, Ahmed S, Walliker D, Babiker HA, 2002. Dynamics of gametocytes among Plasmodium falciparum clones in natural infections in an area of highly seasonal transmission. J Infect Dis 185: 1838–1842.
-
45.
Malisa A, Pearce R, Abdulla S, Mshinda H, Kachur P, Bloland P, Roper C, 2010. Drug coverage in treatment of malaria and the consequences for resistance evolution: evidence from the use of sulphadoxine/pyrimethamine. Malar J 9: 190.
-
46.
Zalis MG, Pang L, Silveira MS, Milhous WK, Wirth DF, 1998. Characterization of Plasmodium falciparum isolated from the Amazon region of Brazil: evidence for quinine resistance. Am J Trop Med Hyg 58: 630–637.
-
47.
Humphreys GS, Merinopoulos I, Ahmed J, Whitty CJ, Mutabingwa TK, Sutherland CJ, Hallett RL, 2007. Amodiaquine and artemether-lumefantrine select distinct alleles of the Plasmodium falciparum mdr1 gene in Tanzanian children treated for uncomplicated malaria. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 51: 991–997.
-
48.
Sidhu AB, Valderramos SG, Fidock DA, 2005. pfmdr1 mutations contribute to quinine resistance and enhance mefloquine and artemisinin sensitivity in Plasmodium falciparum. Mol Microbiol 57: 913–926.
-
49.
Ogbonna A, Uneke CJ, 2008. Artemisinin-based combination therapy for uncomplicated malaria in sub-Saharan Africa: the efficacy, safety, resistance and policy implementation since Abuja 2000. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 102: 621–627.
-
50.
Dokomajilar C, Nsobya SL, Greenhouse B, Rosenthal PJ, Dorsey G, 2006. Selection of Plasmodium falciparum pfmdr1 alleles following therapy with artemether-lumefantrine in an area of Uganda where malaria is highly endemic. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 50: 1893–1895.
-
51.
Happi CT, Gbotosho GO, Folarin OA, Bolaji OM, Sowunmi A, Kyle DE, Milhous W, Wirth DF, Oduola AM, 2006. Association between mutations in Plasmodium falciparum chloroquine resistance transporter and P. falciparum multidrug resistance 1 genes and in vivo amodiaquine resistance in P. falciparum malaria-infected children in Nigeria. Am J Trop Med Hyg 75: 155–161.
-
52.
Sisowath C, Stromberg J, Martensson A, Msellem M, Obondo C, Bjorkman A, Gil JP, 2005. In vivo selection of Plasmodium falciparum pfmdr1 86N coding alleles by artemether-lumefantrine (Coartem). J Infect Dis 191: 1014–1017.
-
53.
Kangwana BB, Njogu J, Wasunna B, Kedenge SV, Memusi DN, Goodman CA, Zurovac D, Snow RW, 2009. Malaria drug shortages in Kenya: a major failure to provide access to effective treatment. Am J Trop Med Hyg 80: 737–738.
-
54.
Mokuolu OA, Okoro EO, Ayetoro SO, Adewara AA, 2007. Effect of artemisinin-based treatment policy on consumption pattern of antimalarials. Am J Trop Med Hyg 76: 7–11.
-
55.
Watsierah CA, Jura WG, Oyugi H, Abong'o B, Ouma C, 2010. Factors determining anti-malarial drug use in a peri-urban population from malaria holoendemic region of western Kenya. Malar J 9: 295.
| Past two years | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 21 | 21 | 5 |
| Full Text Views | 362 | 117 | 0 |
| PDF Downloads | 90 | 28 | 0 |