ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1.
Mendis K, Sina BJ, Marchesini P, Carter R, 2001. The neglected burden of Plasmodium vivax malaria. Am J Trop Med Hyg 64: 97– 106.
-
2.
Guerra CA, Howes RE, Patil AP, Gething PW, Van Boeckel TP, Temperley WH, Kabaria CW, Tatem AJ, Manh BH, Elyazar IR, Baird JK, Snow RW, Hay SI, 2010. The international limits and population at risk of Plasmodium vivax transmission in 2009. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 4: e774.
-
3.
Lee G, Yori P, Olortegui MP, Pan W, Caulfield L, Gilman RH, Sanders JW, Delgado HS, Kosek M, 2012. Comparative effects of vivax malaria, fever and diarrhoea on child growth. Int J Epidemiol. doi:10.1093/ije/dyr190. First published online: January 17, 2012.
-
4.
Nosten F, McGready R, Simpson JA, Thwai KL, Balkan S, Cho T, Hkirijaroen L, Looareesuwan S, White NJ, 1999. Effects of Plasmodium vivax malaria in pregnancy. Lancet 354: 546– 549.
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5.
Baird JK, 2007. Neglect of Plasmodium vivax malaria. Trends Parasitol 23: 533– 539.
-
6.
Alexandre MA, Ferreira CO, Siqueira AM, Magalhaes BL, Mourao MP, Lacerda MV, Alecrim MG, 2010. Severe Plasmodium vivax malaria, Brazilian Amazon. Emerg Infect Dis 16: 1611– 1614.
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7.
Price RN, Douglas NM, Anstey NM, 2009. New developments in Plasmodium vivax malaria: severe disease and the rise of chloroquine resistance. Curr Opin Infect Dis 22: 430– 435.
-
8.
Kochar DK, Das A, Kochar SK, Saxena V, Sirohi P, Garg S, Kochar A, Khatri MP, Gupta V, 2009. Severe Plasmodium vivax malaria: a report on serial cases from Bikaner in northwestern India. Am J Trop Med Hyg 80: 194– 198.
-
9.
Baird JK, 2009. Severe and fatal vivax malaria challenges ‘benign tertian malaria’ dogma. Ann Trop Paediatr 29: 251– 252.
-
10.
Mueller I, Galinski MR, Baird JK, Carlton JM, Kochar DK, Alonso PL, del Portillo HA, 2009. Key gaps in the knowledge of Plasmodium vivax, a neglected human malaria parasite. Lancet Infect Dis 9: 555– 566.
-
11.
Vinetz JM, Gilman RH, 2002. Asymptomatic Plasmodium parasitemia and the ecology of malaria transmission. Am J Trop Med Hyg 66: 639– 640.
-
12.
Alves FP, Durlacher RR, Menezes MJ, Krieger H, Silva LH, Camargo EP, 2002. High prevalence of asymptomatic Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium falciparum infections in native Amazonian populations. Am J Trop Med Hyg 66: 641– 648.
-
13.
Roshanravan B, Kari E, Gilman RH, Cabrera L, Lee E, Metcalfe J, Calderon M, Lescano AG, Montenegro-James S, Calampa C, Vinetz JM, 2003. Endemic malaria in the Peruvian Amazon region of Iquitos. Am J Trop Med Hyg 69: 45– 52.
-
14.
Harris I, Sharrock WW, Bain LM, Gray KA, Bobogare A, Boaz L, Lilley K, Krause D, Vallely A, Johnson ML, Gatton ML, Shanks GD, Cheng Q, 2010. A large proportion of asymptomatic Plasmodium infections with low and sub-microscopic parasite densities in the low transmission setting of Temotu Province, Solomon Islands: challenges for malaria diagnostics in an elimination setting. Malar J 9: 254.
-
15.
Steenkeste N, Rogers WO, Okell L, Jeanne I, Incardona S, Duval L, Chy S, Hewitt S, Chou M, Socheat D, Babin FX, Ariey F, Rogier C, 2010. Sub-microscopic malaria cases and mixed malaria infection in a remote area of high malaria endemicity in Rattanakiri province, Cambodia: implication for malaria elimination. Malar J 9: 108.
-
16.
Ladeia-Andrade S, Ferreira MU, de Carvalho ME, Curado I, Coura JR, 2009. Age-dependent acquisition of protective immunity to malaria in riverine populations of the Amazon Basin of Brazil. Am J Trop Med Hyg 80: 452– 459.
-
17.
da Silva NS, da Silva-Nunes M, Malafronte RS, Menezes MJ, D'Arcadia RR, Komatsu NT, Scopel KK, Braga EM, Cavasini CE, Cordeiro JA, Ferreira MU, 2010. Epidemiology and control of frontier malaria in Brazil: lessons from community-based studies in rural Amazonia. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 104: 343– 350.
-
18.
da Silva-Nunes M, Ferreira MU, 2007. Clinical spectrum of uncomplicated malaria in semi-immune Amazonians: beyond the “symptomatic” vs “asymptomatic” dichotomy. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 102: 341– 347.
-
19.
Cui L, Mascorro CN, Fan Q, Rzomp KA, Khuntirat B, Zhou G, Chen H, Yan G, Sattabongkot J, 2003. Genetic diversity and multiple infections of Plasmodium vivax malaria in Western Thailand. Am J Trop Med Hyg 68: 613– 619.
-
20.
Figtree M, Pasay CJ, Slade R, Cheng Q, Cloonan N, Walker J, Saul A, 2000. Plasmodium vivax synonymous substitution frequencies, evolution and population structure deduced from diversity in AMA 1 and MSP 1 genes. Mol Biochem Parasitol 108: 53– 66.
-
21.
Bruce MC, Galinski MR, Barnwell JW, Snounou G, Day KP, 1999. Polymorphism at the merozoite surface protein-3alpha locus of Plasmodium vivax: global and local diversity. Am J Trop Med Hyg 61: 518– 525.
-
22.
Feng X, Carlton JM, Joy DA, Mu J, Furuya T, Suh BB, Wang Y, Barnwell JW, Su XZ, 2003. Single-nucleotide polymorphisms and genome diversity in Plasmodium vivax. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 100: 8502– 8507.
-
23.
Imwong M, Sudimack D, Pukrittayakamee S, Osorio L, Carlton JM, Day NP, White NJ, Anderson TJ, 2006. Microsatellite variation, repeat array length, and population history of Plasmodium vivax. Mol Biol Evol 23: 1016– 1018.
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24.
Imwong M, Pukrittayakamee S, Gruner AC, Renia L, Letourneur F, Looareesuwan S, White NJ, Snounou G, 2005. Practical PCR genotyping protocols for Plasmodium vivax using Pvcs and Pvmsp1. Malar J 4: 20.
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Prajapati SK, Joshi H, Valecha N, 2010. Plasmodium vivax merozoite surface protein-3 alpha: a high-resolution marker for genetic diversity studies. J Vector Borne Dis 47: 85– 90.
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Bruce MC, Galinski MR, Barnwell JW, Donnelly CA, Walmsley M, Alpers MP, Walliker D, Day KP, 2000. Genetic diversity and dynamics of Plasmodium falciparum and P. vivax populations in multiply infected children with asymptomatic malaria infections in Papua New Guinea. Parasitology 121: 257– 272.
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Kumkhaek C, Phra-Ek K, Renia L, Singhasivanon P, Looareesuwan S, Hirunpetcharat C, White NJ, Brockman A, Gruner AC, Lebrun N, Alloueche A, Nosten F, Khusmith S, Snounou G, 2005. Are extensive T cell epitope polymorphisms in the Plasmodium falciparum circumsporozoite antigen, a leading sporozoite vaccine candidate, selected by immune pressure? J Immunol 175: 3935– 3939.
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Branch O, Casapia WM, Gamboa DV, Hernandez JN, Alava FF, Roncal N, Alvarez E, Perez EJ, Gotuzzo E, 2005. Clustered local transmission and asymptomatic Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax malaria infections in a recently emerged, hypoendemic Peruvian Amazon community. Malar J 4: 27.
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High Degree of Plasmodium vivax Diversity in the Peruvian Amazon Demonstrated by Tandem Repeat Polymorphism Analysis
Margaret Kosek
Margaret Kosek
Department of International Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland; Laboratory of Infectious Diseases and Instituto de Medicina Tropical Alexander von Humboldt, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru; Asociación Benéfica PRISMA, Lima, Peru; Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego School of Medicine, La Jolla, California
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Pablo P. Yori
Pablo P. Yori
Department of International Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland; Laboratory of Infectious Diseases and Instituto de Medicina Tropical Alexander von Humboldt, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru; Asociación Benéfica PRISMA, Lima, Peru; Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego School of Medicine, La Jolla, California
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Robert H. Gilman
Robert H. Gilman
Department of International Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland; Laboratory of Infectious Diseases and Instituto de Medicina Tropical Alexander von Humboldt, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru; Asociación Benéfica PRISMA, Lima, Peru; Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego School of Medicine, La Jolla, California
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Maritza Calderon
Maritza Calderon
Department of International Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland; Laboratory of Infectious Diseases and Instituto de Medicina Tropical Alexander von Humboldt, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru; Asociación Benéfica PRISMA, Lima, Peru; Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego School of Medicine, La Jolla, California
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Mirko Zimic
Mirko Zimic
Department of International Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland; Laboratory of Infectious Diseases and Instituto de Medicina Tropical Alexander von Humboldt, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru; Asociación Benéfica PRISMA, Lima, Peru; Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego School of Medicine, La Jolla, California
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Raul Chuquiyauri
Raul Chuquiyauri
Department of International Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland; Laboratory of Infectious Diseases and Instituto de Medicina Tropical Alexander von Humboldt, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru; Asociación Benéfica PRISMA, Lima, Peru; Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego School of Medicine, La Jolla, California
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Cesar Jeri
Cesar Jeri
Department of International Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland; Laboratory of Infectious Diseases and Instituto de Medicina Tropical Alexander von Humboldt, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru; Asociación Benéfica PRISMA, Lima, Peru; Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego School of Medicine, La Jolla, California
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Viviana Pinedo-Cancino
Viviana Pinedo-Cancino
Department of International Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland; Laboratory of Infectious Diseases and Instituto de Medicina Tropical Alexander von Humboldt, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru; Asociación Benéfica PRISMA, Lima, Peru; Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego School of Medicine, La Jolla, California
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Michael A. Matthias
Michael A. Matthias
Department of International Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland; Laboratory of Infectious Diseases and Instituto de Medicina Tropical Alexander von Humboldt, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru; Asociación Benéfica PRISMA, Lima, Peru; Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego School of Medicine, La Jolla, California
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Alejandro Llanos-Cuentas
Alejandro Llanos-Cuentas
Department of International Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland; Laboratory of Infectious Diseases and Instituto de Medicina Tropical Alexander von Humboldt, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru; Asociación Benéfica PRISMA, Lima, Peru; Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego School of Medicine, La Jolla, California
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Joseph M. Vinetz
Joseph M. Vinetz
Department of International Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland; Laboratory of Infectious Diseases and Instituto de Medicina Tropical Alexander von Humboldt, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru; Asociación Benéfica PRISMA, Lima, Peru; Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego School of Medicine, La Jolla, California
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Molecular tools to distinguish strains of Plasmodium vivax are important for studying the epidemiology of malaria transmission. Two sets of markers—tandem repeat (TR) polymorphisms and MSP3α—were used to study Plasmodium vivax in patients in the Peruvian Amazon region of Iquitos. Of 110 patients, 90 distinct haplotypes were distinguished using 9 TR markers. An MSP3α polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) using HhaI and AluI revealed 8 and 9 profiles, respectively, and 36 profiles when analyzed in combination. Combining TR and PCR-RFLP markers, 101 distinct molecular profiles were distinguished among these 110 patients. Nine TR markers arrayed along a 100 kB stretch of a P. vivax chromosome containing the gene for circumsporozoite protein showed non-linear linkage disequilibrium (ISA = 0.03, P = 0.001). These findings demonstrate the potential use of TR markers for molecular epidemiology studies.
Author Notes
Financial Support: This work was supported by grants from the United States Public Health Service, National Institutes of Health K24AI06803, D43 TW007120, R01067727, 1U19AI089681 (JMV), and K01TW005717 (MK), an Innovations in Clinical Research Award from the Doris Duke Charitable Foundation (JMV), and a pilot project grant from the Johns Hopkins Malaria Institute (RHG).
Authors' addresses: Margaret Kosek, Pablo P. Yori, and Robert H. Gilman, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Department of International Health, Baltimore, MD, E-mails: mkosek@jhsph.edu, pyori@jhsph.edu, and gilmanbob@gmail.com. Maritza Calderon, AB Prisma, Lima, Peru, E-mail: mmcalderons@yahoo.es. Mirko Zimic, Raul Chuquiyauri, Cesar Jeri, and Viviana Pinedo-Cancino, Alejandro Llanos-Cuentas, Universidad Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru, E-mails: mirko.zimic@upch.edu, raulharo@ucsd.edu, cesajeri@yahoo.es, vivi_cancino@yahoo.com, and elmer.llanos@upch.edu. Michael A. Matthias and Joseph M. Vinetz, University of California San Diego, Department of Medicine, La Jolla, CA, E-mails: mmatthias@ucsd.edu and jvinetz@ucsd.edu.
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1.
Mendis K, Sina BJ, Marchesini P, Carter R, 2001. The neglected burden of Plasmodium vivax malaria. Am J Trop Med Hyg 64: 97– 106.
-
2.
Guerra CA, Howes RE, Patil AP, Gething PW, Van Boeckel TP, Temperley WH, Kabaria CW, Tatem AJ, Manh BH, Elyazar IR, Baird JK, Snow RW, Hay SI, 2010. The international limits and population at risk of Plasmodium vivax transmission in 2009. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 4: e774.
-
3.
Lee G, Yori P, Olortegui MP, Pan W, Caulfield L, Gilman RH, Sanders JW, Delgado HS, Kosek M, 2012. Comparative effects of vivax malaria, fever and diarrhoea on child growth. Int J Epidemiol. doi:10.1093/ije/dyr190. First published online: January 17, 2012.
-
4.
Nosten F, McGready R, Simpson JA, Thwai KL, Balkan S, Cho T, Hkirijaroen L, Looareesuwan S, White NJ, 1999. Effects of Plasmodium vivax malaria in pregnancy. Lancet 354: 546– 549.
-
5.
Baird JK, 2007. Neglect of Plasmodium vivax malaria. Trends Parasitol 23: 533– 539.
-
6.
Alexandre MA, Ferreira CO, Siqueira AM, Magalhaes BL, Mourao MP, Lacerda MV, Alecrim MG, 2010. Severe Plasmodium vivax malaria, Brazilian Amazon. Emerg Infect Dis 16: 1611– 1614.
-
7.
Price RN, Douglas NM, Anstey NM, 2009. New developments in Plasmodium vivax malaria: severe disease and the rise of chloroquine resistance. Curr Opin Infect Dis 22: 430– 435.
-
8.
Kochar DK, Das A, Kochar SK, Saxena V, Sirohi P, Garg S, Kochar A, Khatri MP, Gupta V, 2009. Severe Plasmodium vivax malaria: a report on serial cases from Bikaner in northwestern India. Am J Trop Med Hyg 80: 194– 198.
-
9.
Baird JK, 2009. Severe and fatal vivax malaria challenges ‘benign tertian malaria’ dogma. Ann Trop Paediatr 29: 251– 252.
-
10.
Mueller I, Galinski MR, Baird JK, Carlton JM, Kochar DK, Alonso PL, del Portillo HA, 2009. Key gaps in the knowledge of Plasmodium vivax, a neglected human malaria parasite. Lancet Infect Dis 9: 555– 566.
-
11.
Vinetz JM, Gilman RH, 2002. Asymptomatic Plasmodium parasitemia and the ecology of malaria transmission. Am J Trop Med Hyg 66: 639– 640.
-
12.
Alves FP, Durlacher RR, Menezes MJ, Krieger H, Silva LH, Camargo EP, 2002. High prevalence of asymptomatic Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium falciparum infections in native Amazonian populations. Am J Trop Med Hyg 66: 641– 648.
-
13.
Roshanravan B, Kari E, Gilman RH, Cabrera L, Lee E, Metcalfe J, Calderon M, Lescano AG, Montenegro-James S, Calampa C, Vinetz JM, 2003. Endemic malaria in the Peruvian Amazon region of Iquitos. Am J Trop Med Hyg 69: 45– 52.
-
14.
Harris I, Sharrock WW, Bain LM, Gray KA, Bobogare A, Boaz L, Lilley K, Krause D, Vallely A, Johnson ML, Gatton ML, Shanks GD, Cheng Q, 2010. A large proportion of asymptomatic Plasmodium infections with low and sub-microscopic parasite densities in the low transmission setting of Temotu Province, Solomon Islands: challenges for malaria diagnostics in an elimination setting. Malar J 9: 254.
-
15.
Steenkeste N, Rogers WO, Okell L, Jeanne I, Incardona S, Duval L, Chy S, Hewitt S, Chou M, Socheat D, Babin FX, Ariey F, Rogier C, 2010. Sub-microscopic malaria cases and mixed malaria infection in a remote area of high malaria endemicity in Rattanakiri province, Cambodia: implication for malaria elimination. Malar J 9: 108.
-
16.
Ladeia-Andrade S, Ferreira MU, de Carvalho ME, Curado I, Coura JR, 2009. Age-dependent acquisition of protective immunity to malaria in riverine populations of the Amazon Basin of Brazil. Am J Trop Med Hyg 80: 452– 459.
-
17.
da Silva NS, da Silva-Nunes M, Malafronte RS, Menezes MJ, D'Arcadia RR, Komatsu NT, Scopel KK, Braga EM, Cavasini CE, Cordeiro JA, Ferreira MU, 2010. Epidemiology and control of frontier malaria in Brazil: lessons from community-based studies in rural Amazonia. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 104: 343– 350.
-
18.
da Silva-Nunes M, Ferreira MU, 2007. Clinical spectrum of uncomplicated malaria in semi-immune Amazonians: beyond the “symptomatic” vs “asymptomatic” dichotomy. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 102: 341– 347.
-
19.
Cui L, Mascorro CN, Fan Q, Rzomp KA, Khuntirat B, Zhou G, Chen H, Yan G, Sattabongkot J, 2003. Genetic diversity and multiple infections of Plasmodium vivax malaria in Western Thailand. Am J Trop Med Hyg 68: 613– 619.
-
20.
Figtree M, Pasay CJ, Slade R, Cheng Q, Cloonan N, Walker J, Saul A, 2000. Plasmodium vivax synonymous substitution frequencies, evolution and population structure deduced from diversity in AMA 1 and MSP 1 genes. Mol Biochem Parasitol 108: 53– 66.
-
21.
Bruce MC, Galinski MR, Barnwell JW, Snounou G, Day KP, 1999. Polymorphism at the merozoite surface protein-3alpha locus of Plasmodium vivax: global and local diversity. Am J Trop Med Hyg 61: 518– 525.
-
22.
Feng X, Carlton JM, Joy DA, Mu J, Furuya T, Suh BB, Wang Y, Barnwell JW, Su XZ, 2003. Single-nucleotide polymorphisms and genome diversity in Plasmodium vivax. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 100: 8502– 8507.
-
23.
Imwong M, Sudimack D, Pukrittayakamee S, Osorio L, Carlton JM, Day NP, White NJ, Anderson TJ, 2006. Microsatellite variation, repeat array length, and population history of Plasmodium vivax. Mol Biol Evol 23: 1016– 1018.
-
24.
Imwong M, Pukrittayakamee S, Gruner AC, Renia L, Letourneur F, Looareesuwan S, White NJ, Snounou G, 2005. Practical PCR genotyping protocols for Plasmodium vivax using Pvcs and Pvmsp1. Malar J 4: 20.
-
25.
Prajapati SK, Joshi H, Valecha N, 2010. Plasmodium vivax merozoite surface protein-3 alpha: a high-resolution marker for genetic diversity studies. J Vector Borne Dis 47: 85– 90.
-
26.
Bruce MC, Galinski MR, Barnwell JW, Donnelly CA, Walmsley M, Alpers MP, Walliker D, Day KP, 2000. Genetic diversity and dynamics of Plasmodium falciparum and P. vivax populations in multiply infected children with asymptomatic malaria infections in Papua New Guinea. Parasitology 121: 257– 272.
-
27.
Kumkhaek C, Phra-Ek K, Renia L, Singhasivanon P, Looareesuwan S, Hirunpetcharat C, White NJ, Brockman A, Gruner AC, Lebrun N, Alloueche A, Nosten F, Khusmith S, Snounou G, 2005. Are extensive T cell epitope polymorphisms in the Plasmodium falciparum circumsporozoite antigen, a leading sporozoite vaccine candidate, selected by immune pressure? J Immunol 175: 3935– 3939.
-
28.
Branch O, Casapia WM, Gamboa DV, Hernandez JN, Alava FF, Roncal N, Alvarez E, Perez EJ, Gotuzzo E, 2005. Clustered local transmission and asymptomatic Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax malaria infections in a recently emerged, hypoendemic Peruvian Amazon community. Malar J 4: 27.
-
29.
Van den Eede P, Van der Auwera G, Delgado C, Huyse T, Soto-Calle VE, Gamboa D, Grande T, Rodriguez H, Llanos A, Anne J, Erhart A, D'Alessandro U, 2010. Multilocus genotyping reveals high heterogeneity and strong local population structure of the Plasmodium vivax population in the Peruvian Amazon. Malar J 9: 151.
-
30.
Schoeler GB, Flores-Mendoza C, Fernandez R, Davila JR, Zyzak M, 2003. Geographical distribution of Anopheles darlingi in the Amazon Basin region of Peru. J Am Mosq Control Assoc 19: 286– 296.
-
31.
Flores-Mendoza C, Fernandez R, Escobedo-Vargas KS, Vela-Perez Q, Schoeler GB, 2004. Natural Plasmodium infections in Anopheles darlingi and Anopheles benarrochi (Diptera: Culicidae) from eastern Peru. J Med Entomol 41: 489– 494.
-
32.
Snounou G, Viriyakosol S, Zhu XP, Jarra W, Pinheiro L, do Rosario VE, Thaithong S, Brown KN, 1993. High sensitivity of detection of human malaria parasites by the use of nested polymerase chain reaction. Mol Biochem Parasitol 61: 315– 320.
-
33.
Haubold B, Hudson RR, 2000. LIAN 3.0: detecting linkage disequilibrium in multilocus data. Linkage Analysis. Bioinformatics 16: 847– 848.
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