ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1.
Solomon A, Zondervan M, Kuper H, Buchan J, Mabey D, Foster A, 2006. Trachoma Control: A Guide for Programme Managers. Geneva: World Health Organization.
-
2.
Burton MJ, Kinteh F, Jallow O, Sillah A, Bah M, Faye M, Aryee EA, Ikumapayi UN, Alexander ND, Adegbola RA, Faal H, Mabey DC, Foster A, Johnson GJ, Bailey RL, 2005. A randomised controlled trial of azithromycin following surgery for trachomatous trichiasis in the Gambia. Br J Ophthalmol 89: 1282–1288.
-
3.
Lode H, Borner K, Koeppe P, Schaberg T, 1996. Azithromycin: review of key chemical, pharmacokinetic and microbiological features. J Antimicrob Chemother 37 (Suppl C): 1–8.
-
4.
Langtry HD, Balfour JA, 1998. Azithromycin: a review of its use in paediatric infectious diseases. Drugs 56: 273–297.
-
5.
Orton LC, Omari AA, 2008. Drugs for treating uncomplicated malaria in pregnant women. Cochrane Database Syst Rev CD004912.
-
6.
Hare R, 1964. The transmission of respiratory infections. Proc R Soc Med 57: 221–230.
-
7.
Hoque BA, Juncker T, Sack RB, Ali M, Aziz KM, 1996. Sustainability of a water, sanitation and hygiene education project in rural Bangladesh: a 5-year follow-up. Bull World Health Organ 74: 431–437.
-
8.
Nanan D, White F, Azam I, Afsar H, Hozhabri S, 2003. Evaluation of a water, sanitation, and hygiene education intervention on diarrhoea in northern Pakistan. Bull World Health Organ 81: 160–165.
-
9.
Bryce J, Boschi-Pinto C, Shibuya K, Black RE, 2005. WHO estimates of the causes of death in children. Lancet 365: 1147–1152.
-
10.
Stoller NE, Gebre T, Ayele B, Zerihun M, Assefa Y, Habte D, Zhou Z, Porco TC, Keenan JD, House JI, Gaynor BD, Lietman TM, Emerson PM, 2011. Efficacy of latrine promotion on emergence of infection with ocular Chlamydia trachomatis after mass antibiotic treatment: a cluster-randomized trial. Int Health 3: 75–84.
-
11.
House JI, Ayele B, Porco TC, Zhou Z, Hong KC, Gebre T, Ray KJ, Keenan JD, Stoller NE, Whitcher JP, Gaynor BD, Emerson PM, Lietman TM, 2009. Assessment of herd protection against trachoma due to repeated mass antibiotic distributions: a cluster-randomised trial. Lancet 373: 1111–1118.
-
12.
Porco TC, Gebre T, Ayele B, House J, Keenan J, Zhou Z, Hong KC, Stoller N, Ray KJ, Emerson P, Gaynor BD, Lietman TM, 2009. Effect of mass distribution of azithromycin for trachoma control on overall mortality in Ethiopian children: a randomized trial. JAMA 302: 962–968.
-
13.
Keenan JD, Ayele B, Gebre T, Zerihun M, Zhou Z, House JI, Gaynor BD, Porco TC, Emerson PM, Lietman TM, 2011. Childhood mortality in a cohort treated with mass azithromycin for trachoma. Clin Infect Dis 52: 883–888.
-
14.
Siegel JS, Swanson DA, Shryock HS, 2004. The Methods and Materials of Demography. Second Edition. Amsterdam: Elsevier/Academic Press.
-
15.
Fleiss J, Levin B, Paik M, 2003. Statistical Methods for Rates and Proportions. Third Edition. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
-
16.
Williams RL, 2000. A note on robust variance estimation for cluster-correlated data. Biometrics 56: 645–646.
-
17.
Kaiser R, Woodruff BA, Bilukha O, Spiegel PB, Salama P, 2006. Using design effects from previous cluster surveys to guide sample size calculation in emergency settings. Disasters 30: 199–211.
-
18.
Esrey SA, Feachem RG, Hughes JM, 1985. Interventions for the control of diarrhoeal diseases among young children: improving water supplies and excreta disposal facilities. Bull World Health Organ 63: 757–772.
-
19.
Aziz KM, Hoque BA, Hasan KZ, Patwary MY, Huttly SR, Rahaman MM, Feachem RG, 1990. Reduction in diarrhoeal diseases in children in rural Bangladesh by environmental and behavioural modifications. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 84: 433–438.
-
20.
Garrett V, Ogutu P, Mabonga P, Ombeki S, Mwaki A, Aluoch G, Phelan M, Quick RE, 2008. Diarrhoea prevention in a high-risk rural Kenyan population through point-of-use chlorination, safe water storage, sanitation, and rainwater harvesting. Epidemiol Infect 136: 1463–1471.
-
21.
Azurin JC, Alvero M, 1974. Field evaluation of environmental sanitation measures against cholera. Bull World Health Organ 51: 19–26.
-
22.
Daniels DL, Cousens SN, Makoae LN, Feachem RG, 1990. A case-control study of the impact of improved sanitation on diarrhoea morbidity in Lesotho. Bull World Health Organ 68: 455–463.
-
23.
Fewtrell L, Kaufmann RB, Kay D, Enanoria W, Haller L, Colford JM Jr, 2005. Water, sanitation, and hygiene interventions to reduce diarrhoea in less developed countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Infect Dis 5: 42–52.
-
24.
Esrey SA, Potash JB, Roberts L, Shiff C, 1991. Effects of improved water supply and sanitation on ascariasis, diarrhoea, dracunculiasis, hookworm infection, schistosomiasis, and trachoma. Bull World Health Organ 69: 609–621.
-
25.
Rahman M, Rahaman MM, Wojtyniak B, Aziz KM, 1985. Impact of environmental sanitation and crowding on infant mortality in rural Bangladesh. Lancet 2: 28–31.
-
26.
Haines MR, Avery RC, 1982. Differential infant and child mortality in Costa Rica: 1968–1973. Popul Stud (Camb) 36: 31–43.
-
27.
Patel M, 1980. Effects of the health service and environmental factors on infant mortality: the case of Sri Lanka. J Epidemiol Community Health 34: 76–82.
-
28.
Meddings DR, Ronald LA, Marion S, Pinera JF, Oppliger A, 2004. Cost effectiveness of a latrine revision programme in Kabul, Afghanistan. Bull World Health Organ 82: 281–289.
-
29.
Hoque BA, Chakraborty J, Chowdhury JT, Chowdhury UK, Ali M, el Arifeen S, Sack RB, 1999. Effects of environmental factors on child survival in Bangladesh: a case control study. Public Health 113: 57–64.
-
30.
Esrey SA, 1996. Water, waste, and well-being: a multicountry study. Am J Epidemiol 143: 608–623.
-
31.
Taguchi N, Kawabata M, Maekawa M, Maruo T, Aditiawarman, Dewata L, 2003. Influence of socio-economic background and antenatal care programmes on maternal mortality in Surabaya, Indonesia. Trop Med Int Health 8: 847–852.
-
32.
Snow RW, Armstrong JR, Forster D, Winstanley MT, Marsh VM, Newton CR, Waruiru C, Mwangi I, Winstanley PA, Marsh K, 1992. Childhood deaths in Africa: uses and limitations of verbal autopsies. Lancet 340: 351–355.
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33.
1994. Measurement of overall and cause-specific mortality in infants and children: memorandum from a WHO/UNICEF meeting. Bull World Health Organ 72: 707–713.
| Past two years | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 1398 | 866 | 64 |
| Full Text Views | 4014 | 12 | 1 |
| PDF Downloads | 93 | 11 | 0 |
Latrine Promotion for Trachoma: Assessment of Mortality from a Cluster-Randomized Trial in Ethiopia
Teshome Gebre
Teshome Gebre
Carter Center Ethiopia, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; F.I. Proctor Foundation, Department of Ophthalmology, Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, and Institute for Global Health, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California; Carter Center, Atlanta, Georgia
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Berhan Ayele
Berhan Ayele
Carter Center Ethiopia, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; F.I. Proctor Foundation, Department of Ophthalmology, Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, and Institute for Global Health, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California; Carter Center, Atlanta, Georgia
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Mulat Zerihun
Mulat Zerihun
Carter Center Ethiopia, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; F.I. Proctor Foundation, Department of Ophthalmology, Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, and Institute for Global Health, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California; Carter Center, Atlanta, Georgia
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Jenafir I. House
Jenafir I. House
Carter Center Ethiopia, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; F.I. Proctor Foundation, Department of Ophthalmology, Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, and Institute for Global Health, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California; Carter Center, Atlanta, Georgia
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Nicole E. Stoller
Nicole E. Stoller
Carter Center Ethiopia, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; F.I. Proctor Foundation, Department of Ophthalmology, Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, and Institute for Global Health, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California; Carter Center, Atlanta, Georgia
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Zhaoxia Zhou
Zhaoxia Zhou
Carter Center Ethiopia, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; F.I. Proctor Foundation, Department of Ophthalmology, Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, and Institute for Global Health, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California; Carter Center, Atlanta, Georgia
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Kathryn J. Ray
Kathryn J. Ray
Carter Center Ethiopia, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; F.I. Proctor Foundation, Department of Ophthalmology, Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, and Institute for Global Health, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California; Carter Center, Atlanta, Georgia
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Bruce D. Gaynor
Bruce D. Gaynor
Carter Center Ethiopia, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; F.I. Proctor Foundation, Department of Ophthalmology, Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, and Institute for Global Health, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California; Carter Center, Atlanta, Georgia
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Travis C. Porco
Travis C. Porco
Carter Center Ethiopia, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; F.I. Proctor Foundation, Department of Ophthalmology, Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, and Institute for Global Health, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California; Carter Center, Atlanta, Georgia
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Paul M. Emerson
Paul M. Emerson
Carter Center Ethiopia, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; F.I. Proctor Foundation, Department of Ophthalmology, Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, and Institute for Global Health, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California; Carter Center, Atlanta, Georgia
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Thomas M. Lietman
Thomas M. Lietman
Carter Center Ethiopia, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; F.I. Proctor Foundation, Department of Ophthalmology, Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, and Institute for Global Health, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California; Carter Center, Atlanta, Georgia
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Jeremy D. Keenan
Jeremy D. Keenan
Carter Center Ethiopia, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; F.I. Proctor Foundation, Department of Ophthalmology, Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, and Institute for Global Health, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California; Carter Center, Atlanta, Georgia
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Trachoma control strategies, including latrine construction and antibiotic distribution, are directed at reducing ocular chlamydia, but may have additional benefits. In a cluster-randomized clinical trial, 24 subkebeles (administrative geographic units) in Ethiopia were offered a single mass azithromycin treatment, and half were randomized to receive an intensive latrine promotion. At a follow-up census 26 months after the baseline treatment, 320 persons had died. The mortality rate of children 1–5 years of age was 3.87 (95% confidence interval [CI] = 2.19–6.82) per 1,000 person-years in the latrine promotion arm, and 2.72 (95% CI = 1.37–5.42) per 1,000 person-years in the control arm. In a multi-level mixed effects logistic regression model controlling for age, there was no difference in mortality in persons randomized into the latrine or control arms (odds ratio = 1.18, 95% CI = 0.89–1.58). Latrine promotion provided no additional effect on mortality in the context of an azithromycin distribution program (clinicaltrials.gov, #NCT00322972).
Author Notes
Financial support: The study was supported by the National Institutes of Health (NEI U10 EY016214, K23 EY019071, and NCRR/OD UCSF-CTSI KL2 RR024130), the Bernard Osher Foundation, That Man May See, the Bodri Foundation, the Harper Inglis Trust, the South Asia Research Fund, and Research to Prevent Blindness.
Disclosures: None of the authors has any conflicts of interest.
Authors' addresses: Teshome Gebre, Berhan Ayele, and Mulat Zerihun, The Carter Center-Ethiopia Bole K.K., Kebele 05, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, E-mails: teshumanga2002@yahoo.com, berhanayele@yahoo.com, and mzerihun2003@yahoo.com. Jenafir I. House, Nicole E. Stoller, Zhaoxia Zhou, Kathryn J. Ray, F.I. Proctor Foundation, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, E-mails: jenafirh@yahoo.com, nicole.stoller@ucsf.edu, zhaoxia.zhou@ucsf.edu, and kathryn.ray@ucsf.edu. Paul M. Emerson, Carter Center, Atlanta, GA, E-mail: paul.emerson@emory.edu. Bruce D. Gaynor and Jeremy D. Keenan, F. I. Proctor Foundation and Department of Ophthalmology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, E-mails: bruce.gaynor@ucsf.edu and jeremy.keenan@ucsf.edu. Travis C. Porco, F. I. Proctor Foundation, Department of Ophthalmology, and Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, E-mail: travis.porco@ucsf.edu. Thomas M. Lietman, F. I. Proctor Foundation, Department of Ophthalmology, Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, and Institute for Global Health, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA. E-mail: tom.lietman@ucsf.edu.
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1.
Solomon A, Zondervan M, Kuper H, Buchan J, Mabey D, Foster A, 2006. Trachoma Control: A Guide for Programme Managers. Geneva: World Health Organization.
-
2.
Burton MJ, Kinteh F, Jallow O, Sillah A, Bah M, Faye M, Aryee EA, Ikumapayi UN, Alexander ND, Adegbola RA, Faal H, Mabey DC, Foster A, Johnson GJ, Bailey RL, 2005. A randomised controlled trial of azithromycin following surgery for trachomatous trichiasis in the Gambia. Br J Ophthalmol 89: 1282–1288.
-
3.
Lode H, Borner K, Koeppe P, Schaberg T, 1996. Azithromycin: review of key chemical, pharmacokinetic and microbiological features. J Antimicrob Chemother 37 (Suppl C): 1–8.
-
4.
Langtry HD, Balfour JA, 1998. Azithromycin: a review of its use in paediatric infectious diseases. Drugs 56: 273–297.
-
5.
Orton LC, Omari AA, 2008. Drugs for treating uncomplicated malaria in pregnant women. Cochrane Database Syst Rev CD004912.
-
6.
Hare R, 1964. The transmission of respiratory infections. Proc R Soc Med 57: 221–230.
-
7.
Hoque BA, Juncker T, Sack RB, Ali M, Aziz KM, 1996. Sustainability of a water, sanitation and hygiene education project in rural Bangladesh: a 5-year follow-up. Bull World Health Organ 74: 431–437.
-
8.
Nanan D, White F, Azam I, Afsar H, Hozhabri S, 2003. Evaluation of a water, sanitation, and hygiene education intervention on diarrhoea in northern Pakistan. Bull World Health Organ 81: 160–165.
-
9.
Bryce J, Boschi-Pinto C, Shibuya K, Black RE, 2005. WHO estimates of the causes of death in children. Lancet 365: 1147–1152.
-
10.
Stoller NE, Gebre T, Ayele B, Zerihun M, Assefa Y, Habte D, Zhou Z, Porco TC, Keenan JD, House JI, Gaynor BD, Lietman TM, Emerson PM, 2011. Efficacy of latrine promotion on emergence of infection with ocular Chlamydia trachomatis after mass antibiotic treatment: a cluster-randomized trial. Int Health 3: 75–84.
-
11.
House JI, Ayele B, Porco TC, Zhou Z, Hong KC, Gebre T, Ray KJ, Keenan JD, Stoller NE, Whitcher JP, Gaynor BD, Emerson PM, Lietman TM, 2009. Assessment of herd protection against trachoma due to repeated mass antibiotic distributions: a cluster-randomised trial. Lancet 373: 1111–1118.
-
12.
Porco TC, Gebre T, Ayele B, House J, Keenan J, Zhou Z, Hong KC, Stoller N, Ray KJ, Emerson P, Gaynor BD, Lietman TM, 2009. Effect of mass distribution of azithromycin for trachoma control on overall mortality in Ethiopian children: a randomized trial. JAMA 302: 962–968.
-
13.
Keenan JD, Ayele B, Gebre T, Zerihun M, Zhou Z, House JI, Gaynor BD, Porco TC, Emerson PM, Lietman TM, 2011. Childhood mortality in a cohort treated with mass azithromycin for trachoma. Clin Infect Dis 52: 883–888.
-
14.
Siegel JS, Swanson DA, Shryock HS, 2004. The Methods and Materials of Demography. Second Edition. Amsterdam: Elsevier/Academic Press.
-
15.
Fleiss J, Levin B, Paik M, 2003. Statistical Methods for Rates and Proportions. Third Edition. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
-
16.
Williams RL, 2000. A note on robust variance estimation for cluster-correlated data. Biometrics 56: 645–646.
-
17.
Kaiser R, Woodruff BA, Bilukha O, Spiegel PB, Salama P, 2006. Using design effects from previous cluster surveys to guide sample size calculation in emergency settings. Disasters 30: 199–211.
-
18.
Esrey SA, Feachem RG, Hughes JM, 1985. Interventions for the control of diarrhoeal diseases among young children: improving water supplies and excreta disposal facilities. Bull World Health Organ 63: 757–772.
-
19.
Aziz KM, Hoque BA, Hasan KZ, Patwary MY, Huttly SR, Rahaman MM, Feachem RG, 1990. Reduction in diarrhoeal diseases in children in rural Bangladesh by environmental and behavioural modifications. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 84: 433–438.
-
20.
Garrett V, Ogutu P, Mabonga P, Ombeki S, Mwaki A, Aluoch G, Phelan M, Quick RE, 2008. Diarrhoea prevention in a high-risk rural Kenyan population through point-of-use chlorination, safe water storage, sanitation, and rainwater harvesting. Epidemiol Infect 136: 1463–1471.
-
21.
Azurin JC, Alvero M, 1974. Field evaluation of environmental sanitation measures against cholera. Bull World Health Organ 51: 19–26.
-
22.
Daniels DL, Cousens SN, Makoae LN, Feachem RG, 1990. A case-control study of the impact of improved sanitation on diarrhoea morbidity in Lesotho. Bull World Health Organ 68: 455–463.
-
23.
Fewtrell L, Kaufmann RB, Kay D, Enanoria W, Haller L, Colford JM Jr, 2005. Water, sanitation, and hygiene interventions to reduce diarrhoea in less developed countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Infect Dis 5: 42–52.
-
24.
Esrey SA, Potash JB, Roberts L, Shiff C, 1991. Effects of improved water supply and sanitation on ascariasis, diarrhoea, dracunculiasis, hookworm infection, schistosomiasis, and trachoma. Bull World Health Organ 69: 609–621.
-
25.
Rahman M, Rahaman MM, Wojtyniak B, Aziz KM, 1985. Impact of environmental sanitation and crowding on infant mortality in rural Bangladesh. Lancet 2: 28–31.
-
26.
Haines MR, Avery RC, 1982. Differential infant and child mortality in Costa Rica: 1968–1973. Popul Stud (Camb) 36: 31–43.
-
27.
Patel M, 1980. Effects of the health service and environmental factors on infant mortality: the case of Sri Lanka. J Epidemiol Community Health 34: 76–82.
-
28.
Meddings DR, Ronald LA, Marion S, Pinera JF, Oppliger A, 2004. Cost effectiveness of a latrine revision programme in Kabul, Afghanistan. Bull World Health Organ 82: 281–289.
-
29.
Hoque BA, Chakraborty J, Chowdhury JT, Chowdhury UK, Ali M, el Arifeen S, Sack RB, 1999. Effects of environmental factors on child survival in Bangladesh: a case control study. Public Health 113: 57–64.
-
30.
Esrey SA, 1996. Water, waste, and well-being: a multicountry study. Am J Epidemiol 143: 608–623.
-
31.
Taguchi N, Kawabata M, Maekawa M, Maruo T, Aditiawarman, Dewata L, 2003. Influence of socio-economic background and antenatal care programmes on maternal mortality in Surabaya, Indonesia. Trop Med Int Health 8: 847–852.
-
32.
Snow RW, Armstrong JR, Forster D, Winstanley MT, Marsh VM, Newton CR, Waruiru C, Mwangi I, Winstanley PA, Marsh K, 1992. Childhood deaths in Africa: uses and limitations of verbal autopsies. Lancet 340: 351–355.
-
33.
1994. Measurement of overall and cause-specific mortality in infants and children: memorandum from a WHO/UNICEF meeting. Bull World Health Organ 72: 707–713.
| Past two years | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 1398 | 866 | 64 |
| Full Text Views | 4014 | 12 | 1 |
| PDF Downloads | 93 | 11 | 0 |