Authors:
, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , and
- Introduction
- Materials and Methods
- Outbreak investigation.
- Rodent study sites.
- Rodent capture.
- Rodent processing.
- Orientia tsutsugamushi-specific antibody (IgM and IgG) detection using IFA assay.
- Isolation of O. tsutsugamushi using animal inoculation and mouse fibroblast cell (L-929) culture.
- Detection of O. tsutsugamushi infection in cell culture using IFA.
- Animal use.
- DNA extraction and PCR amplification.
- DNA sequencing and phylogenetic analysis.
- Results and Discussion
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1.
Philip CB, 1948. Tsutsugamushi disease in World War II. J Parasitol 34: 169–191.
-
2.
Ohashi N, Fukuhara M, Shimada M, Tamura A, 1995. Phylogenetic position of Rickettsia tsutsugamushi and the relationship among its antigenic variants by analyses of 16S rRNA gene sequences. FEMS Microbiol Lett 125: 299–304.
-
3.
Watt G, Parola P, 2003. Scrub typhus and tropical rickettsioses. Curr Opin Infect Dis 16: 429–436.
-
4.
Tamura A, Ohashi N, Urakami H, Miyamura S, 1995. Classification of Rickettsia tsutsugamushi in a new genus, Orientia gen. nov., as Orientia tsutsugamushi comb. nov. Int J Syst Bacteriol 45: 589–591.
-
5.
Tamura A, Urakami H, Ohashi N, 1991. A comparative view of Rickettsia tsutsugamushi and the other groups of rickettsiae. Eur J Epidemiol 7: 259–269.
-
6.
Kawamura AJ, Tanaka H, Tamura A, Kawamura AJ, Tanaka H, Tamura A, 1995. Tsutsugamushi Disease. Tokyo, Japan: University of Tokyo Press.
-
7.
Seong SY, Choi MS, Kim IS, 2001. Orientia tsutsugamushi infection: overview and immune responses. Microbes Infect 3: 11–21.
-
8.
Shirai A, Wisseman CL Jr, 1975. Serologic classification of scrub typhus isolates from Pakistan. Am J Trop Med Hyg 24: 145–153.
-
9.
Currie B, 1993. Medicine in tropical Australia. Med J Aust 158: 609, 612–615.
-
10.
Graves S, Wang L, Nack Z, Jones S, 1999. Rickettsia serosurvey in Kimberley, western Australia. Am J Trop Med Hyg 60: 786–789.
-
11.
Ogawa M, Hagiwara T, Kishimoto T, Shiga S, Yoshida Y, Furuya Y, Kaiho I, Ito T, Nemoto H, Yamamoto N, Masukawa K, 2002. Scrub typhus in Japan: epidemiology and clinical features of cases reported in 1998. Am J Trop Med Hyg 67: 162–165.
-
12.
Chong Y, 1989. Application of serologic diagnosis of tsutsugamushi disease (scrub typhus) in Korea where the disease was recently recognized to be endemic. Yonsei Med J 30: 111–117.
-
13.
Yi KS, Chong Y, Covington SC, Donahue BJ, Rothen RL, Rodriguez J, Arthur JD, 1993. Scrub typhus in Korea: importance of early clinical diagnosis in this newly recognized endemic area. Mil Med 158: 269–273.
-
14.
Kollars TM Jr, Bodhidatta D, Phulsuksombati D, Tippayachai B, Coleman RE, 2003. Short report: variation in the 56-kD type-specific antigen gene of Orientia tsutsugamushi isolated from patients in Thailand. Am J Trop Med Hyg 68: 299–300.
-
15.
Singhsilarak T, Leowattana W, Looareesuwan S, Wongchotigul V, Jiang J, Richards AL, Watt G, 2005. Short report: detection of Orientia tsutsugamushi in clinical samples by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction. Am J Trop Med Hyg 72: 640–641.
-
16.
Chattopadhyay S, Richards AL, 2007. Scrub typhus vaccines: past history and recent developments. Hum Vaccin 3: 73–80.
-
17.
Kelly DJ, Richards AL, Temenak J, Strickman D, Dasch GA, 2002. The past and present threat of rickettsial diseases to military medicine and international public health. Clin Infect Dis 34: S145–S169.
-
18.
Shishido A, 1962. Identification and serolgical classification of the causative agent of scrub typhus in Japan. Jpn J Sci Biol 15: 308–321.
-
19.
Eisemann CS, Osterman JV, 1981. Antigens of scrub typhus rickettsiae: separation by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and identification by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Infect Immun 32: 525–533.
-
20.
Tamura A, Ohashi N, Koyama Y, Fukuhara M, Kawamori F, Otsuru M, Wu PF, Lin SY, 1997. Characterization of Orientia tsutsugamushi isolated in Taiwan by immunofluorescence and restriction fragment length polymorphism analyses. FEMS Microbiol Lett 150: 225–231.
-
21.
Elisberg BL, Campbell JM, Bozeman FM, 1968. Antigenic diversity of Rickettsia tsutsugamushi: epidemiologic and ecologic significance. J Hyg Epidemiol Microbiol Immunol 12: 18–25.
-
22.
Tamura A, Takahashi K, Tsuruhara T, Urakami H, Miyamura S, Sekikawa H, Kenmotsu M, Shibata M, Abe S, Nezu H, 1984. Isolation of Rickettsia tsutsugamushi antigenically different from Kato, Karp, and Gilliam strains from patients. Microbiol Immunol 28: 873–882.
-
23.
Qiang Y, Tamura A, Urakami H, Makisaka Y, Koyama S, Fukuhara M, Kadosaka T, 2003. Phylogenetic characterization of Orientia tsutsugamushi isolated in Taiwan according to the sequence homologies of 56-kDa type-specific antigen genes. Microbiol Immunol 47: 577–583.
-
24.
Tay ST, Rohani YM, Ho TM, Shamala D, 2005. Sequence analysis of the hypervariable regions of the 56-kDa immunodominant protein genes of Orientia tsutsugamushi strains in Malaysia. Microbiol Immunol 49: 67–71.
-
25.
Ohashi N, Koyama Y, Urakami H, Fukuhara M, Tamura A, Kawamori F, Yamamoto S, Kasuya S, Yoshimura K, 1996. Demonstration of antigenic and genotypic variation in Orientia tsutsugamushi which were isolated in Japan, and their classification into type and subtype. Microbiol Immunol 40: 627–638.
-
26.
Enatsu T, Urakami H, Tamura A, 1999. Phylogenetic analysis of Orientia tsutsugamushi strains based on the sequence homologies of 56-kDa type-specific antigen genes. FEMS Microbiol Lett 180: 163–169.
-
27.
Kelly DJ, Fuerst PA, Ching WM, Richards AL, 2009. Scrub typhus: the geographical distribution of phenotypic and genotypic variants of Orientia tsutsugamushi. Clin Infect Dis 48: S203–S230.
-
28.
Bozeman FM, Elisberg BL, 1963. Serological diagnosis of scrub typhus by indirect immunofluorescence. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 112: 568–573.
-
29.
Robinson DM, Brown G, Gan E, Huxsoll DL, 1976. Adaptation of a microimmunofluorescence test to the study of human Rickettsia tsutsugamushi antibody. Am J Trop Med Hyg 25: 900–905.
-
30.
Russell E, Monkanna T, Kenneth KJ, Strickman DJ, Frances SP, Tanskul P, Kollars TM, Inkaminlao JR, Watcharapichat P, Khlaimanee N, Phulsuksombati D, Sangjun N, Lerdthusnee K, 2003. Occurrence of Orientia tsutsugamushi in small mammals from Thailand. Am J Trop Med Hyg 69: 519–524.
-
31.
Lerdthusnee K, Khuntirat B, Leepitakrat W, Tanskul P, Monkanna T, Khlaimanee N, Inlao I, Kengluecha A, Mungviriya S, Chandranoi K, Krairojananan P, Bodhidatta D, Rodkwamthook W, Phulsuksombati D, Sangjun N, Watcharapichat P, Jones JW, Coleman RE, 2003. Scrub typhus vector competence of Leptotrombidium chiangraiensis chiggers and transmission efficacy and isolation of Orientia tsutsugamushi. Ann N Y Acad Sci 990: 25–35.
-
32.
Clark DC, Bladwin RL, Bayne KA, Brown MJ, Gebhart GF, Gonder JC, Gwathmey JK, Keeling ME, Kohn DF, Robb JW, Smith OA, Steggerda JA, Vandenbergh JG, White WJ, Williams-Blangero S, VandeBerg JL, 1996. Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
-
33.
O'Neill SL, Giordano R, Colbert AM, Karr TL, Robertson HM, 1992. 16S rRNA phylogenetic analysis of the bacterial endosymbionts associated with cytoplasmic incompatibility in insects. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 89: 2699–2702.
-
34.
Swofford DL, 2002. PAUP*. Phylogenetic analysis using pasimony (* and other methods). Version 4.0 beta 10. Sunderland, MA: Sinaneur Associates.
-
35.
Posada D, 2003. Using MODELTEST and PAUP* to select a modezl of nucleotide substitution. Curr Protoc Bioinformatics Chapter 6: Unit 6.5.
-
36.
Posada D, Crandall KA, 1998. MODELTEST: testing the model of DNA substitution. Bioinformatics 14: 817–818.
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37.
Richards AL, Soeatmandji DW, Widodo MA, Sardjono TW, Yanuwiadi B, Hernowati TE, Baskoro AD, Roebiyoso, Hakim L, Soendoro M, Rahardjo E, Putri MP, Saragih JM, Strickman D, Kelly DJ, Dasch GA, Olson JG, Church CJ, Corwin AL, 1997. Seroepidemiological evidence for murine and scrub typhus in Malang, Indonesia. Am J Trop Med Hyg 57: 91–95.
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38.
Frances SP, Watchrapichat P, Phunlsuksombati D, 2000. Development and persistence of antobodies to Orientia tsutsugamushi in the roof rat, Rattus rattus and laboratory mice following attachment of naturally infected Leptotrombidium deliense. Acta Trop 77: 279–285.
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39.
Jiang J, Sangkasuwan V, Lerdthusnee K, Sukwit S, Chuenchitra T, Rozmajzl PJ, Eamsila C, Jones JW, Richards AL, 2005. Molecular evidence of human infection with TT-118, Rickettsia honei, from Thailand. Emerg Infect Dis 11: 1475–1477.
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Altschul SF, Madden TL, Schaffer AA, Zhang J, Zhang Z, Miller W, Lipman DJ, 1997. Gapped BLAST and PSI-BLAST: a new generation of protein database search programs. Nucleic Acids Res 25: 3389–3402.
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41.
Tamura A, Ohashi N, Urakami H, Takahashi K, Oyanagi M, 1985. Analysis of polypeptide composition and antigenic components of Rickettsia tsutsugamushi by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and immunoblotting. Infect Immun 48: 671–675.
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Isolation and Characterization of Orientia tsutsugamushi from Rodents Captured following a Scrub Typhus Outbreak at a Military Training Base, Bothong District, Chonburi Province, Central Thailand
Wuttikon Rodkvamtook
Wuttikon Rodkvamtook
Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand; Armed Forces Research Institute of Medical Science, Royal Thai Army, Bangkok, Thailand; Viral and Rickettsial Diseases Department, Naval Medical Research Center, Silver Spring, Maryland; Preventive Medicine and Biometrics Department, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, Maryland; Department of Disease Control, Ministry of Public Health, Nonthaburi, Thailand
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Toon Ruang-areerate
Toon Ruang-areerate
Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand; Armed Forces Research Institute of Medical Science, Royal Thai Army, Bangkok, Thailand; Viral and Rickettsial Diseases Department, Naval Medical Research Center, Silver Spring, Maryland; Preventive Medicine and Biometrics Department, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, Maryland; Department of Disease Control, Ministry of Public Health, Nonthaburi, Thailand
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Jariyanart Gaywee
Jariyanart Gaywee
Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand; Armed Forces Research Institute of Medical Science, Royal Thai Army, Bangkok, Thailand; Viral and Rickettsial Diseases Department, Naval Medical Research Center, Silver Spring, Maryland; Preventive Medicine and Biometrics Department, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, Maryland; Department of Disease Control, Ministry of Public Health, Nonthaburi, Thailand
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Allen L. Richards
Allen L. Richards
Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand; Armed Forces Research Institute of Medical Science, Royal Thai Army, Bangkok, Thailand; Viral and Rickettsial Diseases Department, Naval Medical Research Center, Silver Spring, Maryland; Preventive Medicine and Biometrics Department, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, Maryland; Department of Disease Control, Ministry of Public Health, Nonthaburi, Thailand
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Pimmada Jeamwattanalert
Pimmada Jeamwattanalert
Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand; Armed Forces Research Institute of Medical Science, Royal Thai Army, Bangkok, Thailand; Viral and Rickettsial Diseases Department, Naval Medical Research Center, Silver Spring, Maryland; Preventive Medicine and Biometrics Department, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, Maryland; Department of Disease Control, Ministry of Public Health, Nonthaburi, Thailand
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Dharadhida Bodhidatta
Dharadhida Bodhidatta
Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand; Armed Forces Research Institute of Medical Science, Royal Thai Army, Bangkok, Thailand; Viral and Rickettsial Diseases Department, Naval Medical Research Center, Silver Spring, Maryland; Preventive Medicine and Biometrics Department, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, Maryland; Department of Disease Control, Ministry of Public Health, Nonthaburi, Thailand
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Noppadon Sangjun
Noppadon Sangjun
Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand; Armed Forces Research Institute of Medical Science, Royal Thai Army, Bangkok, Thailand; Viral and Rickettsial Diseases Department, Naval Medical Research Center, Silver Spring, Maryland; Preventive Medicine and Biometrics Department, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, Maryland; Department of Disease Control, Ministry of Public Health, Nonthaburi, Thailand
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Anchana Prasartvit
Anchana Prasartvit
Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand; Armed Forces Research Institute of Medical Science, Royal Thai Army, Bangkok, Thailand; Viral and Rickettsial Diseases Department, Naval Medical Research Center, Silver Spring, Maryland; Preventive Medicine and Biometrics Department, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, Maryland; Department of Disease Control, Ministry of Public Health, Nonthaburi, Thailand
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Araya Jatisatienr
Araya Jatisatienr
Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand; Armed Forces Research Institute of Medical Science, Royal Thai Army, Bangkok, Thailand; Viral and Rickettsial Diseases Department, Naval Medical Research Center, Silver Spring, Maryland; Preventive Medicine and Biometrics Department, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, Maryland; Department of Disease Control, Ministry of Public Health, Nonthaburi, Thailand
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Chaiwat Jatisatienr
Chaiwat Jatisatienr
Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand; Armed Forces Research Institute of Medical Science, Royal Thai Army, Bangkok, Thailand; Viral and Rickettsial Diseases Department, Naval Medical Research Center, Silver Spring, Maryland; Preventive Medicine and Biometrics Department, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, Maryland; Department of Disease Control, Ministry of Public Health, Nonthaburi, Thailand
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Orientia tsutsugamushi, an obligate intracellular Gram-negative bacterium, is the causative agent of scrub typhus, a vector-borne disease transmitted by infected chiggers (trombiculid mite larvae). In 2002, an outbreak of scrub typhus occurred among Royal Thai Army troops during the annual field training at a military base in Bothong district, Chonburi province, central Thailand. This report describes the outbreak investigation including its transmission cycle. Results showed that 33.9% of 174 trained troops had scrub typhus-like signs and symptoms and 9.8% of those were positive for O. tsutsugamushi-specific antibodies by indirect fluorescence antibody assay. One hundred thirty-five rodents were captured from this training area, 43% of them had antibodies against O. tsutsugamushi. Six new O. tsutsugamushi isolates were obtained from captured rodent tissues and successfully established in cell culture. Phylogenetic studies showed that these six isolates were either unique or related to a native genotype of previously described isolates from Thailand.
Author Notes
Financial support: This work was supported by Thanphuying Viraya Chavakul Foundation for Medical Armed Forces Research Grant (2008), the Department of Biology, Faculty of Science and the Graduate school, Chiang Mai University Thailand, the Armed Forces Research Institute of Medical Science (AFRIMS) Royal Thai Army, Bangkok Thailand, and GEIS/AFHSC work unit number 847705.82000.25GB.A0074 for the financial support of this project.
Authors' addresses: Wuttikon Rodkvamtook, Toon Ruang-areerate, and Jariyanart Gaywee, Department of Epidemiology, Research Division Armed Forces Research Institute of Medical Science (AFRIMS), Royal Thai Army, Ratchathawee, Bangkok, Thailand, E-mails: wuttikornr@afrims.go.th, youangtr@yahoo.com, and jariyanartg@afrims.org. Allen L. Richards, Naval Medical Research Center, Viral and Rickettsial Diseases Department, Silver Spring, MD, E-mail: Allen.Richards@med.navy.mil. Pimmada Jeamwattanalert, Department of Enteric Diseases, Armed Forces Research Institute of Medical Sciences (AFRIMS), Ratchathawee, Bangkok, Thailand, E-mail: pimmadaj@afrims.org. Dharadhida Bodhidatta, Research Division, Armed Forces Research Institute of Medical Sciences (AFRIMS), Royal Thai Army, Ratchathawee, Bangkok, Thailand, E-mail: dbodhi@hotmail.com. Noppadon Sangjun, Department of Laboratory Animal, Analysis Division, Armed Forces Research Institute of Medical Sciences (AFRIMS), Royal Thai Army, Ratchathawee, Bangkok, Thailand, E-mail: noppadon625@yahoo.com. Anchana Prasartvit, Bureau of General Communicable Diseases, Department of Disease Control, Ministry of Public Health, Nonthaburi, Thailand, E-mail: A_Pasartvit@yahoo.com. Araya Jatisatienr and Chaiwat Jatisatienr, Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University, Muang District, Chiang Mai, Thailand, E-mails: Arayarj@yahoo.com and Jchaiwat@chiangmai.ac.th.
- Introduction
- Materials and Methods
- Outbreak investigation.
- Rodent study sites.
- Rodent capture.
- Rodent processing.
- Orientia tsutsugamushi-specific antibody (IgM and IgG) detection using IFA assay.
- Isolation of O. tsutsugamushi using animal inoculation and mouse fibroblast cell (L-929) culture.
- Detection of O. tsutsugamushi infection in cell culture using IFA.
- Animal use.
- DNA extraction and PCR amplification.
- DNA sequencing and phylogenetic analysis.
- Results and Discussion
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1.
Philip CB, 1948. Tsutsugamushi disease in World War II. J Parasitol 34: 169–191.
-
2.
Ohashi N, Fukuhara M, Shimada M, Tamura A, 1995. Phylogenetic position of Rickettsia tsutsugamushi and the relationship among its antigenic variants by analyses of 16S rRNA gene sequences. FEMS Microbiol Lett 125: 299–304.
-
3.
Watt G, Parola P, 2003. Scrub typhus and tropical rickettsioses. Curr Opin Infect Dis 16: 429–436.
-
4.
Tamura A, Ohashi N, Urakami H, Miyamura S, 1995. Classification of Rickettsia tsutsugamushi in a new genus, Orientia gen. nov., as Orientia tsutsugamushi comb. nov. Int J Syst Bacteriol 45: 589–591.
-
5.
Tamura A, Urakami H, Ohashi N, 1991. A comparative view of Rickettsia tsutsugamushi and the other groups of rickettsiae. Eur J Epidemiol 7: 259–269.
-
6.
Kawamura AJ, Tanaka H, Tamura A, Kawamura AJ, Tanaka H, Tamura A, 1995. Tsutsugamushi Disease. Tokyo, Japan: University of Tokyo Press.
-
7.
Seong SY, Choi MS, Kim IS, 2001. Orientia tsutsugamushi infection: overview and immune responses. Microbes Infect 3: 11–21.
-
8.
Shirai A, Wisseman CL Jr, 1975. Serologic classification of scrub typhus isolates from Pakistan. Am J Trop Med Hyg 24: 145–153.
-
9.
Currie B, 1993. Medicine in tropical Australia. Med J Aust 158: 609, 612–615.
-
10.
Graves S, Wang L, Nack Z, Jones S, 1999. Rickettsia serosurvey in Kimberley, western Australia. Am J Trop Med Hyg 60: 786–789.
-
11.
Ogawa M, Hagiwara T, Kishimoto T, Shiga S, Yoshida Y, Furuya Y, Kaiho I, Ito T, Nemoto H, Yamamoto N, Masukawa K, 2002. Scrub typhus in Japan: epidemiology and clinical features of cases reported in 1998. Am J Trop Med Hyg 67: 162–165.
-
12.
Chong Y, 1989. Application of serologic diagnosis of tsutsugamushi disease (scrub typhus) in Korea where the disease was recently recognized to be endemic. Yonsei Med J 30: 111–117.
-
13.
Yi KS, Chong Y, Covington SC, Donahue BJ, Rothen RL, Rodriguez J, Arthur JD, 1993. Scrub typhus in Korea: importance of early clinical diagnosis in this newly recognized endemic area. Mil Med 158: 269–273.
-
14.
Kollars TM Jr, Bodhidatta D, Phulsuksombati D, Tippayachai B, Coleman RE, 2003. Short report: variation in the 56-kD type-specific antigen gene of Orientia tsutsugamushi isolated from patients in Thailand. Am J Trop Med Hyg 68: 299–300.
-
15.
Singhsilarak T, Leowattana W, Looareesuwan S, Wongchotigul V, Jiang J, Richards AL, Watt G, 2005. Short report: detection of Orientia tsutsugamushi in clinical samples by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction. Am J Trop Med Hyg 72: 640–641.
-
16.
Chattopadhyay S, Richards AL, 2007. Scrub typhus vaccines: past history and recent developments. Hum Vaccin 3: 73–80.
-
17.
Kelly DJ, Richards AL, Temenak J, Strickman D, Dasch GA, 2002. The past and present threat of rickettsial diseases to military medicine and international public health. Clin Infect Dis 34: S145–S169.
-
18.
Shishido A, 1962. Identification and serolgical classification of the causative agent of scrub typhus in Japan. Jpn J Sci Biol 15: 308–321.
-
19.
Eisemann CS, Osterman JV, 1981. Antigens of scrub typhus rickettsiae: separation by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and identification by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Infect Immun 32: 525–533.
-
20.
Tamura A, Ohashi N, Koyama Y, Fukuhara M, Kawamori F, Otsuru M, Wu PF, Lin SY, 1997. Characterization of Orientia tsutsugamushi isolated in Taiwan by immunofluorescence and restriction fragment length polymorphism analyses. FEMS Microbiol Lett 150: 225–231.
-
21.
Elisberg BL, Campbell JM, Bozeman FM, 1968. Antigenic diversity of Rickettsia tsutsugamushi: epidemiologic and ecologic significance. J Hyg Epidemiol Microbiol Immunol 12: 18–25.
-
22.
Tamura A, Takahashi K, Tsuruhara T, Urakami H, Miyamura S, Sekikawa H, Kenmotsu M, Shibata M, Abe S, Nezu H, 1984. Isolation of Rickettsia tsutsugamushi antigenically different from Kato, Karp, and Gilliam strains from patients. Microbiol Immunol 28: 873–882.
-
23.
Qiang Y, Tamura A, Urakami H, Makisaka Y, Koyama S, Fukuhara M, Kadosaka T, 2003. Phylogenetic characterization of Orientia tsutsugamushi isolated in Taiwan according to the sequence homologies of 56-kDa type-specific antigen genes. Microbiol Immunol 47: 577–583.
-
24.
Tay ST, Rohani YM, Ho TM, Shamala D, 2005. Sequence analysis of the hypervariable regions of the 56-kDa immunodominant protein genes of Orientia tsutsugamushi strains in Malaysia. Microbiol Immunol 49: 67–71.
-
25.
Ohashi N, Koyama Y, Urakami H, Fukuhara M, Tamura A, Kawamori F, Yamamoto S, Kasuya S, Yoshimura K, 1996. Demonstration of antigenic and genotypic variation in Orientia tsutsugamushi which were isolated in Japan, and their classification into type and subtype. Microbiol Immunol 40: 627–638.
-
26.
Enatsu T, Urakami H, Tamura A, 1999. Phylogenetic analysis of Orientia tsutsugamushi strains based on the sequence homologies of 56-kDa type-specific antigen genes. FEMS Microbiol Lett 180: 163–169.
-
27.
Kelly DJ, Fuerst PA, Ching WM, Richards AL, 2009. Scrub typhus: the geographical distribution of phenotypic and genotypic variants of Orientia tsutsugamushi. Clin Infect Dis 48: S203–S230.
-
28.
Bozeman FM, Elisberg BL, 1963. Serological diagnosis of scrub typhus by indirect immunofluorescence. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 112: 568–573.
-
29.
Robinson DM, Brown G, Gan E, Huxsoll DL, 1976. Adaptation of a microimmunofluorescence test to the study of human Rickettsia tsutsugamushi antibody. Am J Trop Med Hyg 25: 900–905.
-
30.
Russell E, Monkanna T, Kenneth KJ, Strickman DJ, Frances SP, Tanskul P, Kollars TM, Inkaminlao JR, Watcharapichat P, Khlaimanee N, Phulsuksombati D, Sangjun N, Lerdthusnee K, 2003. Occurrence of Orientia tsutsugamushi in small mammals from Thailand. Am J Trop Med Hyg 69: 519–524.
-
31.
Lerdthusnee K, Khuntirat B, Leepitakrat W, Tanskul P, Monkanna T, Khlaimanee N, Inlao I, Kengluecha A, Mungviriya S, Chandranoi K, Krairojananan P, Bodhidatta D, Rodkwamthook W, Phulsuksombati D, Sangjun N, Watcharapichat P, Jones JW, Coleman RE, 2003. Scrub typhus vector competence of Leptotrombidium chiangraiensis chiggers and transmission efficacy and isolation of Orientia tsutsugamushi. Ann N Y Acad Sci 990: 25–35.
-
32.
Clark DC, Bladwin RL, Bayne KA, Brown MJ, Gebhart GF, Gonder JC, Gwathmey JK, Keeling ME, Kohn DF, Robb JW, Smith OA, Steggerda JA, Vandenbergh JG, White WJ, Williams-Blangero S, VandeBerg JL, 1996. Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
-
33.
O'Neill SL, Giordano R, Colbert AM, Karr TL, Robertson HM, 1992. 16S rRNA phylogenetic analysis of the bacterial endosymbionts associated with cytoplasmic incompatibility in insects. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 89: 2699–2702.
-
34.
Swofford DL, 2002. PAUP*. Phylogenetic analysis using pasimony (* and other methods). Version 4.0 beta 10. Sunderland, MA: Sinaneur Associates.
-
35.
Posada D, 2003. Using MODELTEST and PAUP* to select a modezl of nucleotide substitution. Curr Protoc Bioinformatics Chapter 6: Unit 6.5.
-
36.
Posada D, Crandall KA, 1998. MODELTEST: testing the model of DNA substitution. Bioinformatics 14: 817–818.
-
37.
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