- Introduction
- Materials and Methods
- Results
- Summary of landscape- and residence-based variables associated with case and control villages based on historic reports of human plague case occurrence.
- Summary of residence-based variables associated with huts situated in areas classified as elevated or low risk.
- Summary of risk factors for plague in case and control villages within areas classified as posing an elevated risk for plague.
- Discussion
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1.
Gage KL, Kosoy MY, 2005. Natural history of plague: perspectives from more than a century of research. Annu Rev Entomol 50: 505–528.
-
2.
Eisen RJ, Gage KL, 2009. Adaptive strategies of Yersinia pestis to persist during inter-epizootic and epizootic periods. Vet Res 40: 1.
-
3.
Dennis DT, Gage KL, 2004. Plague. Cohen J, Powderly WG, eds. Infectious Diseases. London, United Kingdom: Mosby, 1641–1648.
-
4.
Begier EM, Asiki G, Anywaine Z, Yockey B, Schriefer ME, Aleti P, Ogden-Odoi A, Staples JE, Sexton C, Bearden SW, Kool JL, 2006. Pneumonic plague cluster, Uganda, 2004. Emerg Infect Dis 12: 460–467.
-
5.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 2009. Bubonic and pneumonia plague—Uganda, 2006. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 58: 778–781.
-
6.
Poland JD, Dennis DT, 1999. Diagnosis and clinical manifestations. Plague Manual: Epidemiology, Distribution, Surveillance and Control. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization, 43–54.
-
7.
Crook LD, Tempest B, 1992. Plague. A clinical review of 27 cases. Arch Intern Med 152: 1253–1256.
-
8.
Tikhomirov E, 1999. Epidemiology and distribution of plague. Dennis DT, Gage KL, Gratz N, Poland JD, Tikhomirov E, eds. Plague Manual: Epidemiology, Distribution, Surveillance and Control. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization, 11–37.
-
9.
Neerinckx S, Bertherat E, Leirs H, 2010. Human plague occurrences in Africa: an overview from 1877 to 2008. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 104: 97–103.
-
10.
Neerinckx SB, Peterson AT, Gulinck H, Deckers J, Leirs H, 2008. Geographic distribution and ecological niche of plague in sub-Saharan Africa. Int J Health Geogr 7: 54.
-
11.
World Health Organization, 2005. Outbreak news index. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 80: 433 –440.
-
12.
Eisen RJ, Griffith KS, Borchert JN, MacMillan K, Apangu T, Owor N, Acayo S, Acidri R, Zielinski-Gutierrez E, Winters AM, Enscore RE, Schriefer ME, Beard CB, Gage KL, Mead PS, 2010. Assessing human risk of exposure to plague bacteria in northwestern Uganda based on remotely sensed predictors. Am J Trop Med Hyg 82: 904–911.
-
13.
Eisen RJ, Enscore RE, Biggerstaff BJ, Reynolds PJ, Ettestad P, Brown T, Pape J, Tanda D, Levy CE, Engelthaler DM, Cheek J, Bueno R Jr, Targhetta J, Montenieri JA, Gage KL, 2007. Human plague in the southwestern United States, 1957–2004: spatial models of elevated risk of human exposure to Yersinia pestis. J Med Entomol 44: 530–537.
-
14.
Eisen RJ, Reynolds PJ, Ettestad P, Brown T, Enscore RE, Biggerstaff BJ, Cheek J, Bueno R, Targhetta J, Montenieri JA, Gage KL, 2007. Residence-linked human plague in New Mexico: a habitat-suitability model. Am J Trop Med Hyg 77: 121–125.
-
15.
Holt AC, Salkeld DJ, Fritz CL, Tucker JR, Gong P, 2009. Spatial analysis of plague in California: niche modeling predictions of the current distribution and potential response to climate change. Int J Health Geogr 8: 38.
-
16.
Winters AM, Staples JE, Ogen-Odoi A, Mead PS, Griffith K, Owor N, Babi N, Enscore RE, Eisen L, Gage KL, Eisen RJ, 2009. Spatial risk models for human plague in the West Nile region of Uganda. Am J Trop Med Hyg 80: 1014–1022.
-
17.
Neerinckx S, Peterson AT, Gulinck H, Deckers J, Kimaro D, Leirs H, 2010. Predicting potential risk areas of human plague for the Western Usambara Mountains, Lushoto District, Tanzania. Am J Trop Med Hyg 82: 492–500.
-
18.
Kilonzo BS, 1999. Plague epidemiology and control in eastern and southern Africa during the period 1978 to 1997. Cent Afr J Med 45: 70–76.
-
19.
Amatre G, Babi N, Enscore RE, Ogen-Odoi A, Atiku LA, Akol A, Gage KL, Eisen RJ, 2009. Flea diversity and infestation prevalence on rodents in a plague-endemic region of Uganda. Am J Trop Med Hyg 81: 718–724.
-
20.
Eisen RJ, Borchert JN, Holmes JL, Amatre G, Van Wyk K, Enscore RE, Babi N, Atiku LA, Wilder AP, Vetter SM, Bearden SW, Montenieri JA, Gage KL, 2008. Early-phase transmission of Yersinia pestis by cat fleas (Ctenocephalides felis) and their potential role as vectors in a plague-endemic region of Uganda. Am J Trop Med Hyg 78: 949–956.
-
21.
Mann JM, Martone WJ, Boyce JM, Kaufmann AF, Barnes AM, Weber NS, 1979. Endemic human plague in New Mexico: risk factors associated with infection. J Infect Dis 140: 397–401.
-
22.
Akiev AK, 1982. Epidemiology and incidence of plague in the world, 1958–79. Bull World Health Organ 60: 165–169.
-
23.
Gratz N, 1999. Control of plague transmission. Plague Manual: Epidemiology, Distribution, Surveillance and Control. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization, 97–134.
-
24.
Gage KL, Dennis DT, Orloski KA, Ettestad P, Brown TL, Reynolds PJ, Pape WJ, Fritz CL, Carter LG, Stein JD, 2000. Cases of cat-associated human plague in the Western US, 1977–1998. Clin Infect Dis 30: 893–900.
-
25.
Gould LH, Pape J, Ettestad P, Griffith KS, Mead PS, 2008. Dog-associated risk factors for human plague. Zoonoses Public Health 55: 448–454.
-
26.
Rust JH Jr, Miller BE, Bahmanyar M, Marshall JD Jr, Purnaveja S, Cavanaugh DC, Hla US, 1971. The role of domestic animals in the epidemiology of plague. II. Antibody to Yersinia pestis in sera of dogs and cats. J Infect Dis 124: 527–531.
-
27.
Schotthoefer AM, Eisen RJ, Reynolds PJ, Ettestad P, Brown T, Enscore RE, Biggerstaff BJ, Cheek J, Bueno R, Targhetta J, Montenieri JA, Gage KL, 2008. Socio-Economic Risk Factors Associated with Human Plague Cases in New Mexico. Fort Collins, CO: The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
-
28.
Duplantier JM, Duchemin JB, Chanteau S, Carniel E, 2005. From the recent lessons of the Malagasy foci towards a global understanding of the factors involved in plague reemergence. Vet Res 36: 437–453.
-
30.
Fielding AH, Bell JF, 1997. A review of methods for the assessment of prediction errors in conservation presence/absence models. Environ Conserv 24: 38–49.
-
31.
Davis S, Begon M, De Bruyn L, Ageyev VS, Klassovskiy NL, Pole SB, Viljugrein H, Stenseth NC, Leirs H, 2004. Predictive thresholds for plague in Kazakhstan. Science 304: 736–738.
-
32.
Davis S, Trapman P, Leirs H, Begon M, Heesterbeek JA, 2008. The abundance threshold for plague as a critical percolation phenomenon. Nature 454: 634–637.
-
33.
Hirst LF, 1953. The Conquest of Plague. Oxford, United Kingdom: Claredon Press, 478.
-
34.
Rahelinirina S, Duplantier JM, Ratovonjato J, Ramilijaona O, Ratsimba M, Rahalison L, 2010. Study on the movement of Rattus rattus and evaluation of the plague dispersion in Madagascar. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 10: 77–84.
-
35.
Krasnov BR, Khokhlova IS, 2001. The effect of behavioural interactions on the transfer of fleas (Siphonaptera) between two rodent species. J Vector Ecol 26: 181–190.
-
36.
Krasnov BR, Shenbrot GI, Mouillot D, Khokhlova IS, Poulin R, 2006. Ecological characteristics of flea species relate to their suitability as plague vectors. Oecologia 149: 474–481.
-
37.
Duplantier JM, Duchemin JB, Chanteau S, Carniel E, 1999. The rodent problem in Madagascar: agricultural pest and threat to human health. Ecologically Based Rodent Management. Canberra, Australia: Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, 441–459.
-
38.
Makundi RH, Oguge NO, Mwanjabe PS, 1999. Rodent pest management in East Africa—an ecological approach. Ecologically Based Rodent Management. Canberra, Australia: Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research.
-
39.
Collinge SK, Johnson WC, Ray C, Matchett R, Grensten J, Cully JF, Gage KL, Kosoy M, Loye JE, Martin A, 2005. Testing the generality of the tropic-cascade model for plague. EcoHealth 2: 102–112.
-
40.
Enscore RE, Biggerstaff BJ, Brown TL, Fulgham RE, Reynolds PJ, Engelthaler DM, Levy CE, Parmenter RR, Montenieri JA, Cheek JE, Grinnell RK, Ettestad PJ, Gage KL, 2002. Modeling relationships between climate and the frequency of human plague cases in the southwestern United States, 1960–1997. Am J Trop Med Hyg 66: 186–196.
-
41.
Hopkins GHE, 1947. Annotated and illustrated keys to the known fleas of East Africa. Uganda J 11: 133–191.
| Past two years | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 784 | 702 | 243 |
| Full Text Views | 346 | 11 | 1 |
| PDF Downloads | 110 | 9 | 1 |
Landscape and Residential Variables Associated with Plague-Endemic Villages in the West Nile Region of Uganda
Katherine MacMillan
Katherine MacMillan
Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado; Uganda Virus Research Institute, Entebbe, Uganda; Department of Zoology, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda; Department of Biological Sciences, Kyambogo University, Kampala, Uganda
Search for other papers by Katherine MacMillan in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by Katherine MacMillan in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Russell E. Enscore
Russell E. Enscore
Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado; Uganda Virus Research Institute, Entebbe, Uganda; Department of Zoology, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda; Department of Biological Sciences, Kyambogo University, Kampala, Uganda
Search for other papers by Russell E. Enscore in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by Russell E. Enscore in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Asaph Ogen-Odoi
Asaph Ogen-Odoi
Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado; Uganda Virus Research Institute, Entebbe, Uganda; Department of Zoology, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda; Department of Biological Sciences, Kyambogo University, Kampala, Uganda
Search for other papers by Asaph Ogen-Odoi in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by Asaph Ogen-Odoi in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Jeff N. Borchert
Jeff N. Borchert
Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado; Uganda Virus Research Institute, Entebbe, Uganda; Department of Zoology, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda; Department of Biological Sciences, Kyambogo University, Kampala, Uganda
Search for other papers by Jeff N. Borchert in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by Jeff N. Borchert in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Nackson Babi
Nackson Babi
Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado; Uganda Virus Research Institute, Entebbe, Uganda; Department of Zoology, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda; Department of Biological Sciences, Kyambogo University, Kampala, Uganda
Search for other papers by Nackson Babi in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by Nackson Babi in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Gerald Amatre
Gerald Amatre
Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado; Uganda Virus Research Institute, Entebbe, Uganda; Department of Zoology, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda; Department of Biological Sciences, Kyambogo University, Kampala, Uganda
Search for other papers by Gerald Amatre in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by Gerald Amatre in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Linda A. Atiku
Linda A. Atiku
Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado; Uganda Virus Research Institute, Entebbe, Uganda; Department of Zoology, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda; Department of Biological Sciences, Kyambogo University, Kampala, Uganda
Search for other papers by Linda A. Atiku in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by Linda A. Atiku in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Paul S. Mead
Paul S. Mead
Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado; Uganda Virus Research Institute, Entebbe, Uganda; Department of Zoology, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda; Department of Biological Sciences, Kyambogo University, Kampala, Uganda
Search for other papers by Paul S. Mead in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by Paul S. Mead in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Kenneth L. Gage
Kenneth L. Gage
Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado; Uganda Virus Research Institute, Entebbe, Uganda; Department of Zoology, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda; Department of Biological Sciences, Kyambogo University, Kampala, Uganda
Search for other papers by Kenneth L. Gage in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by Kenneth L. Gage in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Rebecca J. Eisen
Rebecca J. Eisen
Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado; Uganda Virus Research Institute, Entebbe, Uganda; Department of Zoology, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda; Department of Biological Sciences, Kyambogo University, Kampala, Uganda
Search for other papers by Rebecca J. Eisen in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by Rebecca J. Eisen in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Plague, caused by the bacteria Yersinia pestis, is a severe, often fatal disease. This study focuses on the plague-endemic West Nile region of Uganda, where limited information is available regarding environmental and behavioral risk factors associated with plague infection. We conducted observational surveys of 10 randomly selected huts within historically classified case and control villages (four each) two times during the dry season of 2006 (N = 78 case huts and N = 80 control huts), which immediately preceded a large plague outbreak. By coupling a previously published landscape-level statistical model of plague risk with this observational survey, we were able to identify potential residence-based risk factors for plague associated with huts within historic case or control villages (e.g., distance to neighboring homestead and presence of pigs near the home) and huts within areas previously predicted as elevated risk or low risk (e.g., corn and other annual crops grown near the home, water storage in the home, and processed commercial foods stored in the home). The identified variables are consistent with current ecologic theories on plague transmission dynamics. This preliminary study serves as a foundation for future case control studies in the area.
Author Notes
Authors' addresses: Katherine MacMillan, Russell E. Enscore, Jeff N. Borchert, Paul S. Mead, Kenneth L. Gage, and Rebecca J. Eisen, Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, CO, E-mails: iky4@cdc.gov, rce0@cdc.gov, gqx1@cdc.gov, pfm0@cdc.gov, klg0@cdc.gov, and dyn2@cdc.gov. Nackson Babi, Gerald Amatre, and Linda A. Atiku, Uganda Virus Research Institute, Entebbe, Uganda, E-mails: nacksonbabi@yahoo.com, gamatrea@yahoo.com, and lindadawnpinky@yahoo.com. Nackson Babi and Gerald Amatre, Department of Zoology, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda. Gerald Amatre, Department of Biological Sciences, Kyambogo University, Kampala, Uganda.
- Introduction
- Materials and Methods
- Results
- Summary of landscape- and residence-based variables associated with case and control villages based on historic reports of human plague case occurrence.
- Summary of residence-based variables associated with huts situated in areas classified as elevated or low risk.
- Summary of risk factors for plague in case and control villages within areas classified as posing an elevated risk for plague.
- Discussion
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1.
Gage KL, Kosoy MY, 2005. Natural history of plague: perspectives from more than a century of research. Annu Rev Entomol 50: 505–528.
-
2.
Eisen RJ, Gage KL, 2009. Adaptive strategies of Yersinia pestis to persist during inter-epizootic and epizootic periods. Vet Res 40: 1.
-
3.
Dennis DT, Gage KL, 2004. Plague. Cohen J, Powderly WG, eds. Infectious Diseases. London, United Kingdom: Mosby, 1641–1648.
-
4.
Begier EM, Asiki G, Anywaine Z, Yockey B, Schriefer ME, Aleti P, Ogden-Odoi A, Staples JE, Sexton C, Bearden SW, Kool JL, 2006. Pneumonic plague cluster, Uganda, 2004. Emerg Infect Dis 12: 460–467.
-
5.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 2009. Bubonic and pneumonia plague—Uganda, 2006. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 58: 778–781.
-
6.
Poland JD, Dennis DT, 1999. Diagnosis and clinical manifestations. Plague Manual: Epidemiology, Distribution, Surveillance and Control. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization, 43–54.
-
7.
Crook LD, Tempest B, 1992. Plague. A clinical review of 27 cases. Arch Intern Med 152: 1253–1256.
-
8.
Tikhomirov E, 1999. Epidemiology and distribution of plague. Dennis DT, Gage KL, Gratz N, Poland JD, Tikhomirov E, eds. Plague Manual: Epidemiology, Distribution, Surveillance and Control. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization, 11–37.
-
9.
Neerinckx S, Bertherat E, Leirs H, 2010. Human plague occurrences in Africa: an overview from 1877 to 2008. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 104: 97–103.
-
10.
Neerinckx SB, Peterson AT, Gulinck H, Deckers J, Leirs H, 2008. Geographic distribution and ecological niche of plague in sub-Saharan Africa. Int J Health Geogr 7: 54.
-
11.
World Health Organization, 2005. Outbreak news index. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 80: 433 –440.
-
12.
Eisen RJ, Griffith KS, Borchert JN, MacMillan K, Apangu T, Owor N, Acayo S, Acidri R, Zielinski-Gutierrez E, Winters AM, Enscore RE, Schriefer ME, Beard CB, Gage KL, Mead PS, 2010. Assessing human risk of exposure to plague bacteria in northwestern Uganda based on remotely sensed predictors. Am J Trop Med Hyg 82: 904–911.
-
13.
Eisen RJ, Enscore RE, Biggerstaff BJ, Reynolds PJ, Ettestad P, Brown T, Pape J, Tanda D, Levy CE, Engelthaler DM, Cheek J, Bueno R Jr, Targhetta J, Montenieri JA, Gage KL, 2007. Human plague in the southwestern United States, 1957–2004: spatial models of elevated risk of human exposure to Yersinia pestis. J Med Entomol 44: 530–537.
-
14.
Eisen RJ, Reynolds PJ, Ettestad P, Brown T, Enscore RE, Biggerstaff BJ, Cheek J, Bueno R, Targhetta J, Montenieri JA, Gage KL, 2007. Residence-linked human plague in New Mexico: a habitat-suitability model. Am J Trop Med Hyg 77: 121–125.
-
15.
Holt AC, Salkeld DJ, Fritz CL, Tucker JR, Gong P, 2009. Spatial analysis of plague in California: niche modeling predictions of the current distribution and potential response to climate change. Int J Health Geogr 8: 38.
-
16.
Winters AM, Staples JE, Ogen-Odoi A, Mead PS, Griffith K, Owor N, Babi N, Enscore RE, Eisen L, Gage KL, Eisen RJ, 2009. Spatial risk models for human plague in the West Nile region of Uganda. Am J Trop Med Hyg 80: 1014–1022.
-
17.
Neerinckx S, Peterson AT, Gulinck H, Deckers J, Kimaro D, Leirs H, 2010. Predicting potential risk areas of human plague for the Western Usambara Mountains, Lushoto District, Tanzania. Am J Trop Med Hyg 82: 492–500.
-
18.
Kilonzo BS, 1999. Plague epidemiology and control in eastern and southern Africa during the period 1978 to 1997. Cent Afr J Med 45: 70–76.
-
19.
Amatre G, Babi N, Enscore RE, Ogen-Odoi A, Atiku LA, Akol A, Gage KL, Eisen RJ, 2009. Flea diversity and infestation prevalence on rodents in a plague-endemic region of Uganda. Am J Trop Med Hyg 81: 718–724.
-
20.
Eisen RJ, Borchert JN, Holmes JL, Amatre G, Van Wyk K, Enscore RE, Babi N, Atiku LA, Wilder AP, Vetter SM, Bearden SW, Montenieri JA, Gage KL, 2008. Early-phase transmission of Yersinia pestis by cat fleas (Ctenocephalides felis) and their potential role as vectors in a plague-endemic region of Uganda. Am J Trop Med Hyg 78: 949–956.
-
21.
Mann JM, Martone WJ, Boyce JM, Kaufmann AF, Barnes AM, Weber NS, 1979. Endemic human plague in New Mexico: risk factors associated with infection. J Infect Dis 140: 397–401.
-
22.
Akiev AK, 1982. Epidemiology and incidence of plague in the world, 1958–79. Bull World Health Organ 60: 165–169.
-
23.
Gratz N, 1999. Control of plague transmission. Plague Manual: Epidemiology, Distribution, Surveillance and Control. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization, 97–134.
-
24.
Gage KL, Dennis DT, Orloski KA, Ettestad P, Brown TL, Reynolds PJ, Pape WJ, Fritz CL, Carter LG, Stein JD, 2000. Cases of cat-associated human plague in the Western US, 1977–1998. Clin Infect Dis 30: 893–900.
-
25.
Gould LH, Pape J, Ettestad P, Griffith KS, Mead PS, 2008. Dog-associated risk factors for human plague. Zoonoses Public Health 55: 448–454.
-
26.
Rust JH Jr, Miller BE, Bahmanyar M, Marshall JD Jr, Purnaveja S, Cavanaugh DC, Hla US, 1971. The role of domestic animals in the epidemiology of plague. II. Antibody to Yersinia pestis in sera of dogs and cats. J Infect Dis 124: 527–531.
-
27.
Schotthoefer AM, Eisen RJ, Reynolds PJ, Ettestad P, Brown T, Enscore RE, Biggerstaff BJ, Cheek J, Bueno R, Targhetta J, Montenieri JA, Gage KL, 2008. Socio-Economic Risk Factors Associated with Human Plague Cases in New Mexico. Fort Collins, CO: The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
-
28.
Duplantier JM, Duchemin JB, Chanteau S, Carniel E, 2005. From the recent lessons of the Malagasy foci towards a global understanding of the factors involved in plague reemergence. Vet Res 36: 437–453.
-
30.
Fielding AH, Bell JF, 1997. A review of methods for the assessment of prediction errors in conservation presence/absence models. Environ Conserv 24: 38–49.
-
31.
Davis S, Begon M, De Bruyn L, Ageyev VS, Klassovskiy NL, Pole SB, Viljugrein H, Stenseth NC, Leirs H, 2004. Predictive thresholds for plague in Kazakhstan. Science 304: 736–738.
-
32.
Davis S, Trapman P, Leirs H, Begon M, Heesterbeek JA, 2008. The abundance threshold for plague as a critical percolation phenomenon. Nature 454: 634–637.
-
33.
Hirst LF, 1953. The Conquest of Plague. Oxford, United Kingdom: Claredon Press, 478.
-
34.
Rahelinirina S, Duplantier JM, Ratovonjato J, Ramilijaona O, Ratsimba M, Rahalison L, 2010. Study on the movement of Rattus rattus and evaluation of the plague dispersion in Madagascar. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 10: 77–84.
-
35.
Krasnov BR, Khokhlova IS, 2001. The effect of behavioural interactions on the transfer of fleas (Siphonaptera) between two rodent species. J Vector Ecol 26: 181–190.
-
36.
Krasnov BR, Shenbrot GI, Mouillot D, Khokhlova IS, Poulin R, 2006. Ecological characteristics of flea species relate to their suitability as plague vectors. Oecologia 149: 474–481.
-
37.
Duplantier JM, Duchemin JB, Chanteau S, Carniel E, 1999. The rodent problem in Madagascar: agricultural pest and threat to human health. Ecologically Based Rodent Management. Canberra, Australia: Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, 441–459.
-
38.
Makundi RH, Oguge NO, Mwanjabe PS, 1999. Rodent pest management in East Africa—an ecological approach. Ecologically Based Rodent Management. Canberra, Australia: Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research.
-
39.
Collinge SK, Johnson WC, Ray C, Matchett R, Grensten J, Cully JF, Gage KL, Kosoy M, Loye JE, Martin A, 2005. Testing the generality of the tropic-cascade model for plague. EcoHealth 2: 102–112.
-
40.
Enscore RE, Biggerstaff BJ, Brown TL, Fulgham RE, Reynolds PJ, Engelthaler DM, Levy CE, Parmenter RR, Montenieri JA, Cheek JE, Grinnell RK, Ettestad PJ, Gage KL, 2002. Modeling relationships between climate and the frequency of human plague cases in the southwestern United States, 1960–1997. Am J Trop Med Hyg 66: 186–196.
-
41.
Hopkins GHE, 1947. Annotated and illustrated keys to the known fleas of East Africa. Uganda J 11: 133–191.
| Past two years | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 784 | 702 | 243 |
| Full Text Views | 346 | 11 | 1 |
| PDF Downloads | 110 | 9 | 1 |