ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1.
World Health Organization, 2009. Global Tuberculosis Control: Epidemiology, Strategy, Financing. Geneva: World Health Organization. WHO/HTM/TB/2009.411.
-
2.
Dorman SE, Chaisson RE, 2007. From magic bullets back to the Magic Mountain: the rise of extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis. Nat Med 13: 295–298.
-
3.
Gandhi NR, Moll A, Sturm AW, Pawinski R, Govender T, Lalloo U, Zeller K, Andrews J, Friedland G, 2006. Extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis as a cause of death in patients co-infected with tuberculosis and HIV in a rural area of South Africa. Lancet 368: 1575–1580.
-
4.
Basu S, Friedland GH, Medlock J, Andrews JR, Shah NS, Gandhi NR, Moll A, Moodley P, Sturm AW, Galvani AP, 2009. Averting epidemics of extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 106: 7672–7677.
-
5.
World Health Organization, 2008. Global Tuberculosis Control: Surveillance, Planning, Financing. Geneva: World Health Organization. WHO/HTM/TB2008.393.
-
6.
Post WM, DeAngelisa DL, Travis CC, 1983. Endemic disease in environments with spatially heterogeneous host populations. Math Biosci 63: 289–302.
-
7.
Black FL, 1959. Measles antibodies in the population of New Haven, Connecticut. J Immunol 83: 74–82.
-
8.
Hethcote HW, 1978. An immunization model for a heterogeneous population. Theor Popul Biol 14: 338–349.
-
9.
Yorke JA, Hethcote HW, Nold A, 1978. Dynamics and control of the transmission of gonorrhea. Sex Transm Dis 5: 51–56.
-
10.
Dormandy T, 2001. The White Death: A History of Tuberculosis. London: Hambledon & London.
-
11.
Iseman MD, 2000. A Clinician's Guide to Tuberculosis. Hagerstown, MD: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
-
12.
Nolan CM, 1997. Nosocomial multidrug-resistant tuberculosis: global spread of the third epidemic. J Infect Dis 176: 748–751.
-
13.
Lobacheva T, Sazhin V, Vdovichenko E, Giesecke J, 2005. Pulmonary tuberculosis in two remand prisons (SIZOs) in St Petersburg, Russia. Euro Surveill 10: 93–96.
-
14.
Godfrey-Faussett P, Sonnenberg P, Shearer SC, Bruce MC, Mee C, Morris L, Murray J, 2000. Tuberculosis control and molecular epidemiology in a South African gold-mining community. Lancet 356: 1066–1071.
-
15.
Di Perri G, Cruciani M, Danzi MC, Luzzati R, De Checchi G, Malena M, Pizzighella S, Mazzi R, Solbiati M, Concia E, 1989. Nosocomial epidemic of active tuberculosis among HIV-infected patients. Lancet 2: 1502–1504.
-
16.
Moro ML, Errante I, Infuso A, Sodano L, Gori A, Orcese CA, Salamina G, D'Amico C, Besozzi G, Caggese L, 2000. Effectiveness of infection control measures in controlling a nosocomial outbreak of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis among HIV patients in Italy. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 4: 61–68.
-
17.
Moro ML, Gori A, Errante I, Infuso A, Franzetti F, Sodano L, Iemoli E, 1998. An outbreak of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis involving HIV-infected patients of two hospitals in Milan, Italy. Italian Multidrug-Resistant Tuberculosis Outbreak Study Group. AIDS 12: 1095–1102.
-
18.
Keshavjee S, Gelmanova IY, Farmer PE, Mishustin SP, Strelis AK, Andreev YG, Pasechnikov AD, Atwood S, Mukherjee JS, Rich ML, Furin JJ, Nardell EA, Kim JY, Shin SS, 2008. Treatment of extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis in Tomsk, Russia: a retrospective cohort study. Lancet 372: 1403–1409.
-
19.
Shilova MV, Dye C, 2001. The resurgence of tuberculosis in Russia. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 356: 1069–1075.
-
20.
Health CoSDo, 2008. Closing the Gap in a Generation: Health Equity through Action on the Social Determinants of Health, Final Report: Geneva: World Health Organization.
-
21.
Lonnroth K, Jaramillo E, Williams BG, Dye C, Raviglione M, 2009. Drivers of tuberculosis epidemics: the role of risk factors and social determinants. Soc Sci Med 68: 2240–2246.
-
22.
Stuckler D, Basu S, McKee M, King L, 2008. Mass incarceration can explain population increases in TB and multidrug-resistant TB in European and central Asian countries. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 105: 13280–13285.
-
23.
Moss AR, Alland D, Telzak E, Hewlett D Jr, Sharp V, Chiliade P, LaBombardi V, Kabus D, Hanna B, Palumbo L, Brudney K, Weltman A, Stoeckle K, Chirgwin K, Simberkoff M, Moghazeh S, Eisner W, Lutfey M, Kreiswirth B, 1997. A city-wide outbreak of a multiple-drug-resistant strain of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in New York. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 1: 115–121.
-
24.
AIDS and Rights Alliance for Southern Africa, 2008. The Mining Sector, Tuberculosis and Migrant Labour in Southern Africa. Johannesburg, South Africa: AIDS and Rights Alliance for Southern Africa.
-
25.
Jones TF, Woodley CL, Fountain FF, Schaffner W, 2003. Increased incidence of the outbreak strain of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in the surrounding community after an outbreak in a jail. South Med J 96: 155–157.
-
26.
Basu S, Andrews J, Poolman E, Gandhi N, Shah NS, Moll A, Moodley P, Galvani AP, Friedland G, 2007. Prevention of nosocomial transmission of extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis in rural South African district hospitals: an epidemiological modelling study. Lancet 370: 1500–1507.
-
27.
Basu S, Galvani AP, 2007. Extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis in South Africa. Lancet 369: 272–273.
-
28.
Pesaran M, Shin Y, Smith RP, 1999. Pooled mean group estimation of dynamic heterogeneous panels. J Am Stat Assoc 94: 621–634.
-
29.
Moll A, 2007. Extensively Drug-Resistant (XDR) TB in KwaZulu-Natal. 38th International Conference on Tuberculosis and Lung Disease. Cape Town, S240-1.
-
30.
Jensen PA, Lambert LA, Iademarco MF, Ridzon R, 2005. Guidelines for preventing the transmission of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in health-care settings, 2005. MMWR Recomm Rep 54: 1–141.
-
31.
Escombe AR, Moore DA, Gilman RH, Navincopa M, Ticona E, Mitchell B, Noakes C, Martinez C, Sheen P, Ramirez R, Quino W, Gonzalez A, Friedland JS, Evans CA, 2009. Upper-room ultraviolet light and negative air ionization to prevent tuberculosis transmission. PLoS Med 6: e43.
-
32.
Dye C, Williams BG, 2000. Criteria for the control of drug-resistant tuberculosis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 97: 8180–8185.
-
33.
Dye C, Garnett GP, Sleeman K, Williams BG, 1998. Prospects for worldwide tuberculosis control under the WHO DOTS strategy. Directly observed short-course therapy. Lancet 352: 1886–1891.
-
34.
Blower SM, McLean AR, Porco TC, Small PM, Hopewell PC, Sanchez MA, Moss AR, 1995. The intrinsic transmission dynamics of tuberculosis epidemics. Nat Med 1: 815–821.
-
35.
Wells WF, 1955. Airborne Contagion and Air Hygiene: An Ecological Study of Droplet Infections. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
-
36.
Riley RL, Mills CC, O'Grady F, Sultan LU, Wittstadt F, Shivpuri DN, 1962. Infectiousness of air from a tuberculosis ward. Am Rev Respir Dis 85: 511–525.
-
37.
Noakes CJ, Beggs CB, Sleigh PA, Kerr KG, 2006. Modelling the transmission of airborne infections in enclosed spaces. Epidemiol Infect 134: 1082–1091.
-
38.
Dye C, Espinal MA, 2001. Will tuberculosis become resistant to all antibiotics? Proc Biol Sci 268: 45–52.
-
39.
Gagneux S, Long CD, Small PM, Van T, Schoolnik GK, Bohannan BJ, 2006. The competitive cost of antibiotic resistance in Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Science 312: 1944–1946.
-
40.
Blower SM, Dowlatabadi H, 1994. Sensitivity and uncertainty analysis of complex models of disease transmission. Int Stat Rev 2: 229–243.
-
41.
Shin G, Khoshnood K, 2004. The impact of prison amnesties on tuberculosis control in Russia. Harvard Health Pol Rev 5: 20–35.
-
42.
Loveday M, Thomson L, Chopra M, Ndlela Z, 2008. A health systems assessment of the KwaZulu-Natal tuberculosis programme in the context of increasing drug resistance. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 12: 1042–1047.
-
43.
Public Health Research Institute, 2000. PHRI/Soros Russian TB Program: An Initiative of the International Center for Public Health. New York: Public Health Research Institute.
-
44.
Coker RJ, Dimitrova B, Drobniewski F, Samyshkin Y, Balabanova Y, Kuznetsov S, Fedorin I, Melentsiev A, Marchenko G, Zakharova S, Atun R, 2003. Tuberculosis control in Samara Oblast, Russia: institutional and regulatory environment. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 7: 920–932.
-
45.
South Africa Department of Health, 2007. Tuberculosis Strategic Plan for South Africa, 2007–2011. Pretoria, South Africa: Department of Health.
-
46.
Lipsitch M, Cohen T, Cooper B, Robins JM, Ma S, James L, Gopalakrishna G, Chew SK, Tan CC, Samore MH, Fisman D, Murray M, 2003. Transmission dynamics and control of severe acute respiratory syndrome. Science 300: 1966–1970.
-
47.
Gillespie DT, 2001. Approximate accelerated stochastic simulation of chemically reacting systems. J Chem Phys 115: 1176–33.
-
48.
Lurie MN, Williams BG, Zuma K, Mkaya-Mwamburi D, Garnett G, Sturm AW, Sweat MD, Gittelsohn J, Abdool Karim SS, 2003. The impact of migration on HIV-1 transmission in South Africa: a study of migrant and nonmigrant men and their partners. Sex Transm Dis 30: 149–156.
-
49.
Lurie MN, Williams BG, Zuma K, Mkaya-Mwamburi D, Garnett GP, Sweat MD, Gittelsohn J, Karim SS, 2003. Who infects whom? HIV-1 concordance and discordance among migrant and non-migrant couples in South Africa. AIDS 17: 2245–2252.
-
50.
Drobniewski FA, Balabanova YM, Ruddy MC, Graham C, Kuznetzov SI, Gusarova GI, Zakharova SM, Melentyev AS, Fedorin IM, 2005. Tuberculosis, HIV seroprevalence and intravenous drug abuse in prisoners. Eur Respir J 26: 298–304.
-
51.
International Organization on Standardization, 2006. International Standard ISO 3166-1, Codes for the Representation of Names of Countries and their Subdivisions–Part 1: Country Codes, ISO 3166-1. Geneva: United Nations.
-
52.
World Health Organization, 2008. World Health Report. Geneva: World Health Organization.
| Past two years | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 1790 | 1655 | 378 |
| Full Text Views | 560 | 14 | 0 |
| PDF Downloads | 233 | 14 | 0 |
Addressing Institutional Amplifiers in the Dynamics and Control of Tuberculosis Epidemics
Sanjay Basu
Sanjay Basu
Department of Medicine, University of California, Division of General Internal Medicine, San Francisco General Hospital, San Francisco, California; Department of Sociology, Oxford University, Oxford, United Kingdom; Department of Public Health and Policy, European Observatory on Health Systems and Policies, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
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David Stuckler
David Stuckler
Department of Medicine, University of California, Division of General Internal Medicine, San Francisco General Hospital, San Francisco, California; Department of Sociology, Oxford University, Oxford, United Kingdom; Department of Public Health and Policy, European Observatory on Health Systems and Policies, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
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Martin McKee
Martin McKee
Department of Medicine, University of California, Division of General Internal Medicine, San Francisco General Hospital, San Francisco, California; Department of Sociology, Oxford University, Oxford, United Kingdom; Department of Public Health and Policy, European Observatory on Health Systems and Policies, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
Search for other papers by Martin McKee in
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Tuberculosis outbreaks originating in prisons, mines, or hospital wards can spread to the larger community. Recent proposals have targeted these high-transmission institutional amplifiers by improving case detection, treatment, or reducing the size of the exposed population. However, what effects these alternative proposals may have is unclear. We mathematically modeled these control strategies and found case detection and treatment methods insufficient in addressing epidemics involving common types of institutional amplifiers. Movement of persons in and out of amplifiers fundamentally altered the transmission dynamics of tuberculosis in a manner not effectively mitigated by detection or treatment alone. Policies increasing the population size exposed to amplifiers or the per-person duration of exposure within amplifiers potentially worsened incidence, even in settings with high rates of detection and treatment success. However, reducing the total population size entering institutional amplifiers significantly lowered tuberculosis incidence and the risk of propagating new drug-resistant tuberculosis strains.
Author Notes
Financial support: Sanjay Basu is supported by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (R36) and the National Institutes of Health (T32). Martin McKee is supported by the European Observatory on Health Systems and Policies.
Authors' addresses: Sanjay Basu, Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, Division of General Internal Medicine, San Francisco General Hospital, San Francisco, CA, E-mail: sanjay.basu@ucsf.edu. David Stuckler, Department of Public Health and Policy, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom, and Department of Sociology, Oxford University, Meadow Flat, Christ Church, Oxford, United Kingdom, E-mail: david.stuckler@chch.ox.ac.uk. Martin McKee, European Centre on Health of Societies in Transition, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom, E-mail: martin.mckee@lshtm.ac.uk.
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1.
World Health Organization, 2009. Global Tuberculosis Control: Epidemiology, Strategy, Financing. Geneva: World Health Organization. WHO/HTM/TB/2009.411.
-
2.
Dorman SE, Chaisson RE, 2007. From magic bullets back to the Magic Mountain: the rise of extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis. Nat Med 13: 295–298.
-
3.
Gandhi NR, Moll A, Sturm AW, Pawinski R, Govender T, Lalloo U, Zeller K, Andrews J, Friedland G, 2006. Extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis as a cause of death in patients co-infected with tuberculosis and HIV in a rural area of South Africa. Lancet 368: 1575–1580.
-
4.
Basu S, Friedland GH, Medlock J, Andrews JR, Shah NS, Gandhi NR, Moll A, Moodley P, Sturm AW, Galvani AP, 2009. Averting epidemics of extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 106: 7672–7677.
-
5.
World Health Organization, 2008. Global Tuberculosis Control: Surveillance, Planning, Financing. Geneva: World Health Organization. WHO/HTM/TB2008.393.
-
6.
Post WM, DeAngelisa DL, Travis CC, 1983. Endemic disease in environments with spatially heterogeneous host populations. Math Biosci 63: 289–302.
-
7.
Black FL, 1959. Measles antibodies in the population of New Haven, Connecticut. J Immunol 83: 74–82.
-
8.
Hethcote HW, 1978. An immunization model for a heterogeneous population. Theor Popul Biol 14: 338–349.
-
9.
Yorke JA, Hethcote HW, Nold A, 1978. Dynamics and control of the transmission of gonorrhea. Sex Transm Dis 5: 51–56.
-
10.
Dormandy T, 2001. The White Death: A History of Tuberculosis. London: Hambledon & London.
-
11.
Iseman MD, 2000. A Clinician's Guide to Tuberculosis. Hagerstown, MD: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
-
12.
Nolan CM, 1997. Nosocomial multidrug-resistant tuberculosis: global spread of the third epidemic. J Infect Dis 176: 748–751.
-
13.
Lobacheva T, Sazhin V, Vdovichenko E, Giesecke J, 2005. Pulmonary tuberculosis in two remand prisons (SIZOs) in St Petersburg, Russia. Euro Surveill 10: 93–96.
-
14.
Godfrey-Faussett P, Sonnenberg P, Shearer SC, Bruce MC, Mee C, Morris L, Murray J, 2000. Tuberculosis control and molecular epidemiology in a South African gold-mining community. Lancet 356: 1066–1071.
-
15.
Di Perri G, Cruciani M, Danzi MC, Luzzati R, De Checchi G, Malena M, Pizzighella S, Mazzi R, Solbiati M, Concia E, 1989. Nosocomial epidemic of active tuberculosis among HIV-infected patients. Lancet 2: 1502–1504.
-
16.
Moro ML, Errante I, Infuso A, Sodano L, Gori A, Orcese CA, Salamina G, D'Amico C, Besozzi G, Caggese L, 2000. Effectiveness of infection control measures in controlling a nosocomial outbreak of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis among HIV patients in Italy. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 4: 61–68.
-
17.
Moro ML, Gori A, Errante I, Infuso A, Franzetti F, Sodano L, Iemoli E, 1998. An outbreak of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis involving HIV-infected patients of two hospitals in Milan, Italy. Italian Multidrug-Resistant Tuberculosis Outbreak Study Group. AIDS 12: 1095–1102.
-
18.
Keshavjee S, Gelmanova IY, Farmer PE, Mishustin SP, Strelis AK, Andreev YG, Pasechnikov AD, Atwood S, Mukherjee JS, Rich ML, Furin JJ, Nardell EA, Kim JY, Shin SS, 2008. Treatment of extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis in Tomsk, Russia: a retrospective cohort study. Lancet 372: 1403–1409.
-
19.
Shilova MV, Dye C, 2001. The resurgence of tuberculosis in Russia. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 356: 1069–1075.
-
20.
Health CoSDo, 2008. Closing the Gap in a Generation: Health Equity through Action on the Social Determinants of Health, Final Report: Geneva: World Health Organization.
-
21.
Lonnroth K, Jaramillo E, Williams BG, Dye C, Raviglione M, 2009. Drivers of tuberculosis epidemics: the role of risk factors and social determinants. Soc Sci Med 68: 2240–2246.
-
22.
Stuckler D, Basu S, McKee M, King L, 2008. Mass incarceration can explain population increases in TB and multidrug-resistant TB in European and central Asian countries. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 105: 13280–13285.
-
23.
Moss AR, Alland D, Telzak E, Hewlett D Jr, Sharp V, Chiliade P, LaBombardi V, Kabus D, Hanna B, Palumbo L, Brudney K, Weltman A, Stoeckle K, Chirgwin K, Simberkoff M, Moghazeh S, Eisner W, Lutfey M, Kreiswirth B, 1997. A city-wide outbreak of a multiple-drug-resistant strain of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in New York. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 1: 115–121.
-
24.
AIDS and Rights Alliance for Southern Africa, 2008. The Mining Sector, Tuberculosis and Migrant Labour in Southern Africa. Johannesburg, South Africa: AIDS and Rights Alliance for Southern Africa.
-
25.
Jones TF, Woodley CL, Fountain FF, Schaffner W, 2003. Increased incidence of the outbreak strain of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in the surrounding community after an outbreak in a jail. South Med J 96: 155–157.
-
26.
Basu S, Andrews J, Poolman E, Gandhi N, Shah NS, Moll A, Moodley P, Galvani AP, Friedland G, 2007. Prevention of nosocomial transmission of extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis in rural South African district hospitals: an epidemiological modelling study. Lancet 370: 1500–1507.
-
27.
Basu S, Galvani AP, 2007. Extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis in South Africa. Lancet 369: 272–273.
-
28.
Pesaran M, Shin Y, Smith RP, 1999. Pooled mean group estimation of dynamic heterogeneous panels. J Am Stat Assoc 94: 621–634.
-
29.
Moll A, 2007. Extensively Drug-Resistant (XDR) TB in KwaZulu-Natal. 38th International Conference on Tuberculosis and Lung Disease. Cape Town, S240-1.
-
30.
Jensen PA, Lambert LA, Iademarco MF, Ridzon R, 2005. Guidelines for preventing the transmission of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in health-care settings, 2005. MMWR Recomm Rep 54: 1–141.
-
31.
Escombe AR, Moore DA, Gilman RH, Navincopa M, Ticona E, Mitchell B, Noakes C, Martinez C, Sheen P, Ramirez R, Quino W, Gonzalez A, Friedland JS, Evans CA, 2009. Upper-room ultraviolet light and negative air ionization to prevent tuberculosis transmission. PLoS Med 6: e43.
-
32.
Dye C, Williams BG, 2000. Criteria for the control of drug-resistant tuberculosis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 97: 8180–8185.
-
33.
Dye C, Garnett GP, Sleeman K, Williams BG, 1998. Prospects for worldwide tuberculosis control under the WHO DOTS strategy. Directly observed short-course therapy. Lancet 352: 1886–1891.
-
34.
Blower SM, McLean AR, Porco TC, Small PM, Hopewell PC, Sanchez MA, Moss AR, 1995. The intrinsic transmission dynamics of tuberculosis epidemics. Nat Med 1: 815–821.
-
35.
Wells WF, 1955. Airborne Contagion and Air Hygiene: An Ecological Study of Droplet Infections. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
-
36.
Riley RL, Mills CC, O'Grady F, Sultan LU, Wittstadt F, Shivpuri DN, 1962. Infectiousness of air from a tuberculosis ward. Am Rev Respir Dis 85: 511–525.
-
37.
Noakes CJ, Beggs CB, Sleigh PA, Kerr KG, 2006. Modelling the transmission of airborne infections in enclosed spaces. Epidemiol Infect 134: 1082–1091.
-
38.
Dye C, Espinal MA, 2001. Will tuberculosis become resistant to all antibiotics? Proc Biol Sci 268: 45–52.
-
39.
Gagneux S, Long CD, Small PM, Van T, Schoolnik GK, Bohannan BJ, 2006. The competitive cost of antibiotic resistance in Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Science 312: 1944–1946.
-
40.
Blower SM, Dowlatabadi H, 1994. Sensitivity and uncertainty analysis of complex models of disease transmission. Int Stat Rev 2: 229–243.
-
41.
Shin G, Khoshnood K, 2004. The impact of prison amnesties on tuberculosis control in Russia. Harvard Health Pol Rev 5: 20–35.
-
42.
Loveday M, Thomson L, Chopra M, Ndlela Z, 2008. A health systems assessment of the KwaZulu-Natal tuberculosis programme in the context of increasing drug resistance. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 12: 1042–1047.
-
43.
Public Health Research Institute, 2000. PHRI/Soros Russian TB Program: An Initiative of the International Center for Public Health. New York: Public Health Research Institute.
-
44.
Coker RJ, Dimitrova B, Drobniewski F, Samyshkin Y, Balabanova Y, Kuznetsov S, Fedorin I, Melentsiev A, Marchenko G, Zakharova S, Atun R, 2003. Tuberculosis control in Samara Oblast, Russia: institutional and regulatory environment. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 7: 920–932.
-
45.
South Africa Department of Health, 2007. Tuberculosis Strategic Plan for South Africa, 2007–2011. Pretoria, South Africa: Department of Health.
-
46.
Lipsitch M, Cohen T, Cooper B, Robins JM, Ma S, James L, Gopalakrishna G, Chew SK, Tan CC, Samore MH, Fisman D, Murray M, 2003. Transmission dynamics and control of severe acute respiratory syndrome. Science 300: 1966–1970.
-
47.
Gillespie DT, 2001. Approximate accelerated stochastic simulation of chemically reacting systems. J Chem Phys 115: 1176–33.
-
48.
Lurie MN, Williams BG, Zuma K, Mkaya-Mwamburi D, Garnett G, Sturm AW, Sweat MD, Gittelsohn J, Abdool Karim SS, 2003. The impact of migration on HIV-1 transmission in South Africa: a study of migrant and nonmigrant men and their partners. Sex Transm Dis 30: 149–156.
-
49.
Lurie MN, Williams BG, Zuma K, Mkaya-Mwamburi D, Garnett GP, Sweat MD, Gittelsohn J, Karim SS, 2003. Who infects whom? HIV-1 concordance and discordance among migrant and non-migrant couples in South Africa. AIDS 17: 2245–2252.
-
50.
Drobniewski FA, Balabanova YM, Ruddy MC, Graham C, Kuznetzov SI, Gusarova GI, Zakharova SM, Melentyev AS, Fedorin IM, 2005. Tuberculosis, HIV seroprevalence and intravenous drug abuse in prisoners. Eur Respir J 26: 298–304.
-
51.
International Organization on Standardization, 2006. International Standard ISO 3166-1, Codes for the Representation of Names of Countries and their Subdivisions–Part 1: Country Codes, ISO 3166-1. Geneva: United Nations.
-
52.
World Health Organization, 2008. World Health Report. Geneva: World Health Organization.
| Past two years | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 1790 | 1655 | 378 |
| Full Text Views | 560 | 14 | 0 |
| PDF Downloads | 233 | 14 | 0 |