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1.
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Ringot D, Durand J-P, Tolou H, Boutin J-P, Davoust B, 2004. Rift Valley fever in Chad. Emerg Infect Dis 10: 945–957.
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Al-Hazmi A, Al-Rajhi AA, Abboud EB, Ayoola EA, Al-Hazmi M, Saadi R, Ahmed N, 2005. Ocular complications of Rift Valley fever outbreak in Saudi Arabia. Ophthalmology 112: 313–318.
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Elwan MS, Sharaf MH, Gameel K, El-Hadi E, Arthur RR, 1997. Rift Valley fever retinopathy: observations in a new outbreak. Ann Saudi Med 17: 377–380.
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Jup PG, Kemp A, Grobbelaar A, Lema P, Burt FJ, Alahmed AM, Al Mujalli D, Al Khamees M, Swanepoel R, 2002. The 2000 epidemic of Rift Valley fever in Saudi Arabia: mosquito vector studies. Med Vet Entomol 16: 245–252.
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Abdo-Salem S, Gerbier G, Bonnet P, AL-Qadasi M, Tran A, Thiry E, AL-Eryni G, Roger F, 2006. Descriptive and spatial epidemiology of Rift Valley fever outbreak in Yemen 2000–2001. Ann NY Acad Sci 1081: 240–242.
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Risk Factors for Severe Rift Valley Fever Infection in Kenya, 2007
Amwayi S. Anyangu
Amwayi S. Anyangu
Ministry of Public Health and Sanitation, Kenya; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia; Walter Reed Programme (WRP) U.S. Army Medical Research Unit, Kenya; National Institute of Communicable Diseases of the National Health Laboratory Service, Johannesburg, South Africa; Global Disease Detection Division, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Nairobi, Kenya
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L. Hannah Gould
L. Hannah Gould
Ministry of Public Health and Sanitation, Kenya; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia; Walter Reed Programme (WRP) U.S. Army Medical Research Unit, Kenya; National Institute of Communicable Diseases of the National Health Laboratory Service, Johannesburg, South Africa; Global Disease Detection Division, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Nairobi, Kenya
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Shahnaaz K. Sharif
Shahnaaz K. Sharif
Ministry of Public Health and Sanitation, Kenya; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia; Walter Reed Programme (WRP) U.S. Army Medical Research Unit, Kenya; National Institute of Communicable Diseases of the National Health Laboratory Service, Johannesburg, South Africa; Global Disease Detection Division, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Nairobi, Kenya
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Patrick M. Nguku
Patrick M. Nguku
Ministry of Public Health and Sanitation, Kenya; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia; Walter Reed Programme (WRP) U.S. Army Medical Research Unit, Kenya; National Institute of Communicable Diseases of the National Health Laboratory Service, Johannesburg, South Africa; Global Disease Detection Division, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Nairobi, Kenya
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Jared O. Omolo
Jared O. Omolo
Ministry of Public Health and Sanitation, Kenya; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia; Walter Reed Programme (WRP) U.S. Army Medical Research Unit, Kenya; National Institute of Communicable Diseases of the National Health Laboratory Service, Johannesburg, South Africa; Global Disease Detection Division, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Nairobi, Kenya
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David Mutonga
David Mutonga
Ministry of Public Health and Sanitation, Kenya; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia; Walter Reed Programme (WRP) U.S. Army Medical Research Unit, Kenya; National Institute of Communicable Diseases of the National Health Laboratory Service, Johannesburg, South Africa; Global Disease Detection Division, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Nairobi, Kenya
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Carol Y. Rao
Carol Y. Rao
Ministry of Public Health and Sanitation, Kenya; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia; Walter Reed Programme (WRP) U.S. Army Medical Research Unit, Kenya; National Institute of Communicable Diseases of the National Health Laboratory Service, Johannesburg, South Africa; Global Disease Detection Division, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Nairobi, Kenya
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Edith R. Lederman
Edith R. Lederman
Ministry of Public Health and Sanitation, Kenya; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia; Walter Reed Programme (WRP) U.S. Army Medical Research Unit, Kenya; National Institute of Communicable Diseases of the National Health Laboratory Service, Johannesburg, South Africa; Global Disease Detection Division, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Nairobi, Kenya
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David Schnabel
David Schnabel
Ministry of Public Health and Sanitation, Kenya; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia; Walter Reed Programme (WRP) U.S. Army Medical Research Unit, Kenya; National Institute of Communicable Diseases of the National Health Laboratory Service, Johannesburg, South Africa; Global Disease Detection Division, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Nairobi, Kenya
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Janusz T. Paweska
Janusz T. Paweska
Ministry of Public Health and Sanitation, Kenya; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia; Walter Reed Programme (WRP) U.S. Army Medical Research Unit, Kenya; National Institute of Communicable Diseases of the National Health Laboratory Service, Johannesburg, South Africa; Global Disease Detection Division, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Nairobi, Kenya
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Mark Katz
Mark Katz
Ministry of Public Health and Sanitation, Kenya; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia; Walter Reed Programme (WRP) U.S. Army Medical Research Unit, Kenya; National Institute of Communicable Diseases of the National Health Laboratory Service, Johannesburg, South Africa; Global Disease Detection Division, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Nairobi, Kenya
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Allen Hightower
Allen Hightower
Ministry of Public Health and Sanitation, Kenya; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia; Walter Reed Programme (WRP) U.S. Army Medical Research Unit, Kenya; National Institute of Communicable Diseases of the National Health Laboratory Service, Johannesburg, South Africa; Global Disease Detection Division, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Nairobi, Kenya
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M. Kariuki Njenga
M. Kariuki Njenga
Ministry of Public Health and Sanitation, Kenya; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia; Walter Reed Programme (WRP) U.S. Army Medical Research Unit, Kenya; National Institute of Communicable Diseases of the National Health Laboratory Service, Johannesburg, South Africa; Global Disease Detection Division, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Nairobi, Kenya
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Daniel R. Feikin
Daniel R. Feikin
Ministry of Public Health and Sanitation, Kenya; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia; Walter Reed Programme (WRP) U.S. Army Medical Research Unit, Kenya; National Institute of Communicable Diseases of the National Health Laboratory Service, Johannesburg, South Africa; Global Disease Detection Division, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Nairobi, Kenya
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Robert F. Breiman
Robert F. Breiman
Ministry of Public Health and Sanitation, Kenya; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia; Walter Reed Programme (WRP) U.S. Army Medical Research Unit, Kenya; National Institute of Communicable Diseases of the National Health Laboratory Service, Johannesburg, South Africa; Global Disease Detection Division, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Nairobi, Kenya
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A large Rift Valley fever (RVF) outbreak occurred in Kenya from December 2006 to March 2007. We conducted a study to define risk factors associated with infection and severe disease. A total of 861 individuals from 424 households were enrolled. Two hundred and two participants (23%) had serologic evidence of acute RVF infection. Of these, 52 (26%) had severe RVF disease characterized by hemorrhagic manifestations or death. Independent risk factors for acute RVF infection were consuming or handling products from sick animals (odds ratio [OR] = 2.53, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.78–3.61, population attributable risk percentage [PAR%] = 19%) and being a herdsperson (OR 1.77, 95% CI = 1.20–2.63, PAR% = 11%). Touching an aborted animal fetus was associated with severe RVF disease (OR = 3.83, 95% CI = 1.68–9.07, PAR% = 14%). Consuming or handling products from sick animals was associated with death (OR = 3.67, 95% CI = 1.07–12.64, PAR% = 47%). Exposures related to animal contact were associated with acute RVF infection, whereas exposures to mosquitoes were not independent risk factors.
Author Notes
Financial support: This work was supported by the Ministry of Public Health and Sanitation, Kenya; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA and Nairobi, Kenya; Walter Reed Programme (WRP) U.S. Army Medical Research Unit, Kenya; Kenya Medical Research Institute (KEMRI), Kenya.
Authors' addresses: Amwayi S. Anyangu, Ministry of Public Health and Sanitation, Kenya, Provincial Headquarters North Eastern Province, Garissa, Kenya, E-mail: amwayi2004@yahoo.com. L. Hannah Gould, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta GA, E-mail: lgould@cdc.gov. Shahnaaz K. Sharif, Ministry of Public Health and Sanitation, Nairobi, Kenya, E-mails: sksharif@africaonline.co.ke or pphs@health.go.ke. Patrick M. Nguku, Division of Communicable Disease Control, Ministry of Health, Nairobi-Kenya, E-mail: drnguku@yahoo.com. Jared O. Omolo and David Mutonga, Division of Disease Surveillance and Response, Ministry of Health, Kenya, Nairobi, E-mails: jaredom@gmail.com and davidmutonga@yahoo.com. Carol Y. Rao, Division of Healthcare Quality Promotion Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, E-mail: cnr3@cdc.gov. Edith R. Lederman, Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Division of Viral and Rickettisial Diseases, National Center for Zoonotic, Vector-borne and Enteric Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, E-mails: dvk9@cdc.gov, erlederman@yahoo.com, or Edith.Lederman@med.navy.mil. David Schnabel, U.S. Army, Medical Corps, Global Emerging Infections System (GEIS), U.S. Army Medical Research Unit – Kenya, E-mail: dschnabel@wrp-nbo.org. Janusz T. Paweska, Special Pathogens Unit, National Institute for Communicable Diseases, South Africa. Mark Katz, Global Disease Detection Division CDC-Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya, E-mail: mkatz@ke.cdc.gov. Allen Hightower, CDC, Kenya, E-mail: AHightower@ke.cdc.gov. M. Kariuki Njenga, GDD/IEIP-Kenya, Centers for Disease Control, E-mail: KNjenga@ke.cdc.gov. Daniel R. Feikin, International Emerging Infections Program – Kenya, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, U.S. Public Health Service, E-mail: DFeikin@ke.cdc.gov. Robert F. Breiman, Global Disease Detection Division, International Emerging Infections Program, CDC-Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya, E-mail: RBreiman@ke.cdc.gov.
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1.
Xu F, Liu D, Nunes MR, DA Rosa AP, Tesh RB, Xiao SY, 2007. Antigenic and genetic relationships among Rift Valley fever virus and other selected members of the genus Phlebovirus (Bunyaviridae). Am J Trop Med Hyg 76: 1194–1200.
-
2.
Daubney R, Hudson JR, Garnham PC, 1931. Enzootic hepatitis or Rift Valley fever: an undescribed virus disease of sheep, cattle, and man from east Africa. J Pathol Bacteriol 34: 545–579.
-
3.
Faye O, Diallo M, Diop D, Bezeid OE, Bâ H, Niang M, Dia I, Mohamed SA, Ndiaye K, Diallo D, Ly PO, Diallo B, Nabeth P, Simon F, Lô B, Diop OM, 2007. Rift Valley fever outbreak with east-central African virus lineage in Mauritania, 2003. Emerg Infect Dis 13: 1016–1024. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/EID/content/13/7/1016.htm. Accessed August 10, 2008.
-
4.
Ringot D, Durand J-P, Tolou H, Boutin J-P, Davoust B, 2004. Rift Valley fever in Chad. Emerg Infect Dis 10: 945–957.
-
5.
Laughlin LW, Meegan JM, Strausbaugh LJ, Morens DM, Watten RH, 1979. Epidemic Rift Valley fever in Egypt: observations of the spectrum of human illness. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 73: 630–633.
-
6.
Van Velden DJ, Meyer JD, Olivier J, Gear JH, McIntosh B, 1977. Rift Valley fever affecting humans in South Africa: a clinicopathlogical study. S Afr Med J 51: 867–871.
-
7.
Madani TA, Al-Mazrou YY, Al-Jeffri MH, Mishkhas AA, Al-Rabeah AM, Turkistani AM, Al-Sayed MO, Abodahish Abdullah A, Khan AS, Ksiazek TG, Shobokshi O, 2003. Rift Valley fever epidemic in Saudi Arabia: epidemiological, clinical, and laboratory characteristics. Clin Infect Dis 37: 1084–1092.
-
8.
Al-Hazmi A, Al-Rajhi AA, Abboud EB, Ayoola EA, Al-Hazmi M, Saadi R, Ahmed N, 2005. Ocular complications of Rift Valley fever outbreak in Saudi Arabia. Ophthalmology 112: 313–318.
-
9.
Elwan MS, Sharaf MH, Gameel K, El-Hadi E, Arthur RR, 1997. Rift Valley fever retinopathy: observations in a new outbreak. Ann Saudi Med 17: 377–380.
-
10.
Linthicum KJ, Anyamba A, Tucker CJ, Kelley PW, Myers MF, Peters CJ, 1999. Climate and satellite indicators to forecast Rift Valley fever epidemics in Kenya. Science 285: 397–400.
-
11.
Jup PG, Kemp A, Grobbelaar A, Lema P, Burt FJ, Alahmed AM, Al Mujalli D, Al Khamees M, Swanepoel R, 2002. The 2000 epidemic of Rift Valley fever in Saudi Arabia: mosquito vector studies. Med Vet Entomol 16: 245–252.
-
12.
Flick R, Bouloy M, 2005. Rift Valley fever virus. Curr Mol Med 5: 827–834.
-
13.
Chambers PG, Swanopoel R, 1980. Rift Valley fever in abattoir workers. Cent Afr J Med 26: 122–126.
-
14.
McIntosh BM, Russell D, Dos Santos I, Gears JHS, 1980. Rift Valley fever in humans in South Africa. S Afr Med J 58: 803–806.
-
15.
Brown JL, Domininik JW, Morrissey RL, 1981. Respiratory infectivity of a recently isolated Egyptian strain of Rift Valley fever virus. Infect Immun 33: 848–853.
-
16.
Swanapoel R, Coetzer JA, 1994. Rift Valley fever. Royal Society (Great Britain), ed. Infectious Diseases of Livestock with Special Reference to Southern Africa. Volume 1. New York: Oxford University Press.
-
17.
Smithburn KC, Mahaffy AF, Haddow AJ, Kitchen SF, Smith JF, 1949. Rift Valley fever: accidental infections among laboratory workers. J Immunol 62: 213–227.
-
18.
Imam IZ, Darwish MA, El-Karamany R, 1979. An epidemic of Rift Valley fever in Egypt. Diagnosis of Rift Valley fever in man. Bull World Health Organ 57: 437–439.
-
19.
Woods CW, Karpati AM, Grein T, McCarthy N, Gaturuku P, Muchiri E, Dunster L, Henderson A, Khan AS, Swanepoel R, Bonmarin I, Martin L, Mann P, Smoak BL, Ryan M, Ksiazek TG, Arthur RR, Ndikuyeze A, Agata NN, Peters CJ, 2002. An outbreak of Rift Valley fever in Northeastern Kenya, 1997–1998. Emerg Infect Dis 8: 138–144.
-
20.
Abdo-Salem S, Gerbier G, Bonnet P, AL-Qadasi M, Tran A, Thiry E, AL-Eryni G, Roger F, 2006. Descriptive and spatial epidemiology of Rift Valley fever outbreak in Yemen 2000–2001. Ann NY Acad Sci 1081: 240–242.
-
21.
Meegan JM, 1979. The Rift Valley fever epizootic in Egypt 1977–1978: description of the epizootic and virological studies. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 73: 618–623.
-
22.
Shoemaker T, Boulianne C, Vincent MJ, Pezzanite L, Al-Qahtani MM, Al-Mazrou Y, Khan AS, Rollin PE, Swanepoel R, Ksiazek TG, Nichol ST, 2002. Genetic analysis of viruses associated with emergence of Rift Valley fever in Saudi Arabia and Yemen, 2000–2001. Emerg Infect Dis 8: 1415–1420.
-
23.
US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 2000. Outbreak of Rift Valley fever–Yemen, August–October 2000. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 49: 1065–1066.
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