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Xu F, Liu D, Nunes MR, DA Rosa AP, Tesh RB, Xiao SY, 2007. Antigenic and genetic relationships among Rift Valley fever virus and other selected members of the genus Phlebovirus (Bunyaviridae). Am J Trop Med Hyg 76: 1194–1200.
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Jup PG, Kemp A, Grobbelaar A, Leman P, Burt FJ, Alahmed AM, Al Mujall D, Al Khamees M, Swanepoel R, 2002. The 2000 epidemic of Rift Valley fever in Saudi Arabia: mosquito vector studies. Med Vet Entomol 16: 245–252.
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Flick R, Bouloy M, 2005. Rift Valley fever virus. Curr Mol Med 5: 827–834.
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Chambers PG, Swanopoel R, 1980. Rift Valley fever in abattoir workers. Cent Afr J Med 26: 122–126.
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McIntosh BM, Russell D, Dos Santos I, Gears JHS, 1980. Rift Valley fever in humans in South Africa. S Afr Med J 58: 803–806.
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Imam IZ, Darwish MA, El-Karamany R, 1979. An epidemic of Rift Valley fever in Egypt. 1. Diagnosis of Rift Valley fever in man. Bull World Health Organ 57: 437–439.
-
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Woods CW, Karpati AM, Grein T, McCarthy N, Gaturuku P, Muchiri E, Dunster L, Henderson A, Kahn AS, Swanepoel R, Bonmarin I, Martin L, Mann P, Smoak BL, Ryan M, Ksiazek TG, Arthur RR, Ndikuyeze A, Agata NN, Peters CJ; World Health Organization Hemorrhagic Fever Task Force, 2002. An outbreak of Rift Valley fever in Northeastern Kenya, 1997–1998. Emerg Infect Dis 8: 138–144.
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Madani TA, Al-Mazrou YY, Al-Jeffri MH, Mishkhas AA, Al-Rabeah AM, Turkistani AM, Al-Sayed MO, Abodahish AA, Kahn AS, Ksiazek TG, Shobokshi O, 2003. Rift Valley fever epidemic in Saudi Arabia: epidemiological, clinical, and laboratory characteristics. Clin Infect Dis 37: 1084–1092.
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Abdo-Salem S, Gerbier G, Bonnet P, Al-Qadasi M, Tran A, Thiry E, Al-Eryni G, Roger F, 2006. Descriptive and spatial epidemiology of Rift Valley fever outbreak in Yemen 2000–2001. Ann NY Acad Sci 1081: 240–242.
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Gerdes GH, 2004. Rift Valley fever. Rev Sci Tech 23: 613–623.
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Laughlin LW, Meegan JM, Strausbaugh LJ, Morens DM, Watten RH, 1979. Epidemic Rift Valley fever in Egypt: observations on the spectrum of human illness. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 73: 603–3.
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Van Velden DJ, Meyer JD, Olivier J, Gears JHS, McIntosh B, 1977. Rift Valley fever affecting humans in South Africa: a clinicopathological study. S Afr Med J 51: 867–871.
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Al-Hazmi A, Al-Rajhi AA, Abboud EB, Ayoola EA, Al-Hazmi M, Saadi R, Ahmed N, 2005. Ocular complications of Rift Valley fever outbreak in Saudi Arabia. Ophthalmology 112: 313–318.
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Peters CJ, Meegan JM, 1994. Rift Valley fever. Beran GW, Steele JH, eds. Handbook of Zoonoses. Section B: Viral Zoonoses. Second edition. Boca Raton, FL, CRC Press, 403–420.
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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 2007. Rift Valley fever outbreak–Kenya, November 2006–January 2007. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 56: 73–76.
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Njenga MK, Traicoff D, Tetteh C, Likimani S, Oundo J, Breiman RF, Nyamongo J, Burke H, Nsubuga P, White M, 2008. Laboratory epidemiologist: skilled partner in field epidemiology and disease surveillance in Kenya. J Publ Hlth Policy 29: 149–164.
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Paweska JT, Burt FJ, Swanepoel R, 2005. Validation of IgG-sandwich and IgM-capture ELISA for the detection of antibody to Rift Valley fever virus in humans. J Virol Methods 124: 173–181.
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An Investigation of a Major Outbreak of Rift Valley Fever in Kenya: 2006–2007
Patrick M. Nguku
Patrick M. Nguku
Kenya Ministry of Public Health and Sanitation, Nairobi, Kenya; Field Epidemiology and Laboratory Training Program, Nairobi, Kenya; Provincial Medical Office, Garissa, Kenya; Epidemic Intelligence Service, Office of Workforce and Career Development, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, Georgia; Division of Vector-Borne Infectious Diseases, National Center for Zoonotic, Vector-Borne, and Enteric Diseases, CDC, Fort Collins, Colorado; Centre for Virologic Research, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya; United States Army Medical Research Unit-Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya; Global Disease Detection Division, CDC-Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya
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S. K. Sharif
S. K. Sharif
Kenya Ministry of Public Health and Sanitation, Nairobi, Kenya; Field Epidemiology and Laboratory Training Program, Nairobi, Kenya; Provincial Medical Office, Garissa, Kenya; Epidemic Intelligence Service, Office of Workforce and Career Development, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, Georgia; Division of Vector-Borne Infectious Diseases, National Center for Zoonotic, Vector-Borne, and Enteric Diseases, CDC, Fort Collins, Colorado; Centre for Virologic Research, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya; United States Army Medical Research Unit-Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya; Global Disease Detection Division, CDC-Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya
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David Mutonga
David Mutonga
Kenya Ministry of Public Health and Sanitation, Nairobi, Kenya; Field Epidemiology and Laboratory Training Program, Nairobi, Kenya; Provincial Medical Office, Garissa, Kenya; Epidemic Intelligence Service, Office of Workforce and Career Development, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, Georgia; Division of Vector-Borne Infectious Diseases, National Center for Zoonotic, Vector-Borne, and Enteric Diseases, CDC, Fort Collins, Colorado; Centre for Virologic Research, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya; United States Army Medical Research Unit-Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya; Global Disease Detection Division, CDC-Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya
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Samuel Amwayi
Samuel Amwayi
Kenya Ministry of Public Health and Sanitation, Nairobi, Kenya; Field Epidemiology and Laboratory Training Program, Nairobi, Kenya; Provincial Medical Office, Garissa, Kenya; Epidemic Intelligence Service, Office of Workforce and Career Development, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, Georgia; Division of Vector-Borne Infectious Diseases, National Center for Zoonotic, Vector-Borne, and Enteric Diseases, CDC, Fort Collins, Colorado; Centre for Virologic Research, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya; United States Army Medical Research Unit-Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya; Global Disease Detection Division, CDC-Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya
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Jared Omolo
Jared Omolo
Kenya Ministry of Public Health and Sanitation, Nairobi, Kenya; Field Epidemiology and Laboratory Training Program, Nairobi, Kenya; Provincial Medical Office, Garissa, Kenya; Epidemic Intelligence Service, Office of Workforce and Career Development, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, Georgia; Division of Vector-Borne Infectious Diseases, National Center for Zoonotic, Vector-Borne, and Enteric Diseases, CDC, Fort Collins, Colorado; Centre for Virologic Research, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya; United States Army Medical Research Unit-Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya; Global Disease Detection Division, CDC-Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya
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Omar Mohammed
Omar Mohammed
Kenya Ministry of Public Health and Sanitation, Nairobi, Kenya; Field Epidemiology and Laboratory Training Program, Nairobi, Kenya; Provincial Medical Office, Garissa, Kenya; Epidemic Intelligence Service, Office of Workforce and Career Development, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, Georgia; Division of Vector-Borne Infectious Diseases, National Center for Zoonotic, Vector-Borne, and Enteric Diseases, CDC, Fort Collins, Colorado; Centre for Virologic Research, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya; United States Army Medical Research Unit-Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya; Global Disease Detection Division, CDC-Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya
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Eileen C. Farnon
Eileen C. Farnon
Kenya Ministry of Public Health and Sanitation, Nairobi, Kenya; Field Epidemiology and Laboratory Training Program, Nairobi, Kenya; Provincial Medical Office, Garissa, Kenya; Epidemic Intelligence Service, Office of Workforce and Career Development, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, Georgia; Division of Vector-Borne Infectious Diseases, National Center for Zoonotic, Vector-Borne, and Enteric Diseases, CDC, Fort Collins, Colorado; Centre for Virologic Research, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya; United States Army Medical Research Unit-Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya; Global Disease Detection Division, CDC-Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya
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L. Hannah Gould
L. Hannah Gould
Kenya Ministry of Public Health and Sanitation, Nairobi, Kenya; Field Epidemiology and Laboratory Training Program, Nairobi, Kenya; Provincial Medical Office, Garissa, Kenya; Epidemic Intelligence Service, Office of Workforce and Career Development, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, Georgia; Division of Vector-Borne Infectious Diseases, National Center for Zoonotic, Vector-Borne, and Enteric Diseases, CDC, Fort Collins, Colorado; Centre for Virologic Research, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya; United States Army Medical Research Unit-Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya; Global Disease Detection Division, CDC-Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya
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Edith Lederman
Edith Lederman
Kenya Ministry of Public Health and Sanitation, Nairobi, Kenya; Field Epidemiology and Laboratory Training Program, Nairobi, Kenya; Provincial Medical Office, Garissa, Kenya; Epidemic Intelligence Service, Office of Workforce and Career Development, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, Georgia; Division of Vector-Borne Infectious Diseases, National Center for Zoonotic, Vector-Borne, and Enteric Diseases, CDC, Fort Collins, Colorado; Centre for Virologic Research, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya; United States Army Medical Research Unit-Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya; Global Disease Detection Division, CDC-Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya
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Carol Rao
Carol Rao
Kenya Ministry of Public Health and Sanitation, Nairobi, Kenya; Field Epidemiology and Laboratory Training Program, Nairobi, Kenya; Provincial Medical Office, Garissa, Kenya; Epidemic Intelligence Service, Office of Workforce and Career Development, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, Georgia; Division of Vector-Borne Infectious Diseases, National Center for Zoonotic, Vector-Borne, and Enteric Diseases, CDC, Fort Collins, Colorado; Centre for Virologic Research, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya; United States Army Medical Research Unit-Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya; Global Disease Detection Division, CDC-Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya
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Rosemary Sang
Rosemary Sang
Kenya Ministry of Public Health and Sanitation, Nairobi, Kenya; Field Epidemiology and Laboratory Training Program, Nairobi, Kenya; Provincial Medical Office, Garissa, Kenya; Epidemic Intelligence Service, Office of Workforce and Career Development, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, Georgia; Division of Vector-Borne Infectious Diseases, National Center for Zoonotic, Vector-Borne, and Enteric Diseases, CDC, Fort Collins, Colorado; Centre for Virologic Research, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya; United States Army Medical Research Unit-Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya; Global Disease Detection Division, CDC-Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya
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David Schnabel
David Schnabel
Kenya Ministry of Public Health and Sanitation, Nairobi, Kenya; Field Epidemiology and Laboratory Training Program, Nairobi, Kenya; Provincial Medical Office, Garissa, Kenya; Epidemic Intelligence Service, Office of Workforce and Career Development, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, Georgia; Division of Vector-Borne Infectious Diseases, National Center for Zoonotic, Vector-Borne, and Enteric Diseases, CDC, Fort Collins, Colorado; Centre for Virologic Research, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya; United States Army Medical Research Unit-Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya; Global Disease Detection Division, CDC-Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya
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Daniel R. Feikin
Daniel R. Feikin
Kenya Ministry of Public Health and Sanitation, Nairobi, Kenya; Field Epidemiology and Laboratory Training Program, Nairobi, Kenya; Provincial Medical Office, Garissa, Kenya; Epidemic Intelligence Service, Office of Workforce and Career Development, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, Georgia; Division of Vector-Borne Infectious Diseases, National Center for Zoonotic, Vector-Borne, and Enteric Diseases, CDC, Fort Collins, Colorado; Centre for Virologic Research, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya; United States Army Medical Research Unit-Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya; Global Disease Detection Division, CDC-Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya
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Allen Hightower
Allen Hightower
Kenya Ministry of Public Health and Sanitation, Nairobi, Kenya; Field Epidemiology and Laboratory Training Program, Nairobi, Kenya; Provincial Medical Office, Garissa, Kenya; Epidemic Intelligence Service, Office of Workforce and Career Development, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, Georgia; Division of Vector-Borne Infectious Diseases, National Center for Zoonotic, Vector-Borne, and Enteric Diseases, CDC, Fort Collins, Colorado; Centre for Virologic Research, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya; United States Army Medical Research Unit-Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya; Global Disease Detection Division, CDC-Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya
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M. Kariuki Njenga
M. Kariuki Njenga
Kenya Ministry of Public Health and Sanitation, Nairobi, Kenya; Field Epidemiology and Laboratory Training Program, Nairobi, Kenya; Provincial Medical Office, Garissa, Kenya; Epidemic Intelligence Service, Office of Workforce and Career Development, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, Georgia; Division of Vector-Borne Infectious Diseases, National Center for Zoonotic, Vector-Borne, and Enteric Diseases, CDC, Fort Collins, Colorado; Centre for Virologic Research, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya; United States Army Medical Research Unit-Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya; Global Disease Detection Division, CDC-Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya
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Robert F. Breiman
Robert F. Breiman
Kenya Ministry of Public Health and Sanitation, Nairobi, Kenya; Field Epidemiology and Laboratory Training Program, Nairobi, Kenya; Provincial Medical Office, Garissa, Kenya; Epidemic Intelligence Service, Office of Workforce and Career Development, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, Georgia; Division of Vector-Borne Infectious Diseases, National Center for Zoonotic, Vector-Borne, and Enteric Diseases, CDC, Fort Collins, Colorado; Centre for Virologic Research, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya; United States Army Medical Research Unit-Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya; Global Disease Detection Division, CDC-Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya
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An outbreak of Rift Valley fever (RVF) occurred in Kenya during November 2006 through March 2007. We characterized the magnitude of the outbreak through disease surveillance and serosurveys, and investigated contributing factors to enhance strategies for forecasting to prevent or minimize the impact of future outbreaks. Of 700 suspected cases, 392 met probable or confirmed case definitions; demographic data were available for 340 (87%), including 90 (26.4%) deaths. Male cases were more likely to die than females, Case Fatality Rate Ratio 1.8 (95% Confidence Interval [CI] 1.3–3.8). Serosurveys suggested an attack rate up to 13% of residents in heavily affected areas. Genetic sequencing showed high homology among viruses from this and earlier RVF outbreaks. Case areas were more likely than non-case areas to have soil types that retain surface moisture. The outbreak had a devastatingly high case-fatality rate for hospitalized patients. However, there were up to 180,000 infected mildly ill or asymptomatic people within highly affected areas. Soil type data may add specificity to climate-based forecasting models for RVF.
Author Notes
Authors' addresses: Patrick M. Nguku, Division of Communicable Disease Control, Ministry of Public Health and Sanitation, Nairobi, Kenya, E-mail: drnguku@yahoo.com. Shahnaaz K. Shariff, Director of Public Health and Sanitation, Ministry of Public Health and Sanitation, Nairobi, Kenya, E-mails: sksharif@africaonline.co.ke or pphs@health.go.ke. David Mutonga, Head, Division of Disease Surveillance and Response, Ministry of Health, Nairobi, Kenya, E-mail: davidmutonga@yahoo.com. Amwayi Samuel Anyangu, Ministry of Public Health and Sanitation, Department of Disease Prevention and Control, Field Epidemiology and Laboratory Training Program (FELTP), Epi Track Field Coordinator, Nairobi, Kenya, E-mail: amwayi2004@yahoo.com. Jared O. Omolo, Program Coordinator, Field Epidemiology and Laboratory Training Program, Ministry of Public Health and Sanitation, Nairobi, Kenya, E-mail: jaredom2000@yahoo.com. Eileen Farnon, Division of Parasitic Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, E-mail: edf6@cdc.gov. Hannah L. Gould, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, E-mail: dvj9@cdc.gov. Edith R. Lederman, Infectious Disease Clinical Research Program (IDCRP), Naval Medical Center, San Diego, CA, E-mail: edith.lederman@med.navy.mil. Carol Y. Rao, International Emerging Infections Program, CDC-China, Beijing, China, E-mails: cnr3@cdc.gov. Rosemary Sang, Kenya Medical Research Institute (KEMRI), Nairobi, Kenya, E-mails: Rsang@wrp-nbo.org or Rsang@kemri.org. David Schnabel, US Army Medical Research Unit – Kenya, E-mail: dschnabel@wrp-nbo.org. Daniel Feikin, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, E-mail: dfeikin@jhsph.edu. Allen Hightower, Division of Parasitic Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, E-mail: awh1@cdc.gov. M. Kariuki Njenga, International Emerging Infections Program, CDC-Kenya, KEMRI Headquarters, Nairobi, Kenya, E-mail: KNjenga@ke.cdc.gov. Robert F. Breiman, Office of the Director, CDC-Kenya, KEMRI Headquarters, Nairobi, Kenya, E-mail: RBreiman@ke.cdc.gov.
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1.
Xu F, Liu D, Nunes MR, DA Rosa AP, Tesh RB, Xiao SY, 2007. Antigenic and genetic relationships among Rift Valley fever virus and other selected members of the genus Phlebovirus (Bunyaviridae). Am J Trop Med Hyg 76: 1194–1200.
-
2.
Jup PG, Kemp A, Grobbelaar A, Leman P, Burt FJ, Alahmed AM, Al Mujall D, Al Khamees M, Swanepoel R, 2002. The 2000 epidemic of Rift Valley fever in Saudi Arabia: mosquito vector studies. Med Vet Entomol 16: 245–252.
-
3.
Flick R, Bouloy M, 2005. Rift Valley fever virus. Curr Mol Med 5: 827–834.
-
4.
Chambers PG, Swanopoel R, 1980. Rift Valley fever in abattoir workers. Cent Afr J Med 26: 122–126.
-
5.
McIntosh BM, Russell D, Dos Santos I, Gears JHS, 1980. Rift Valley fever in humans in South Africa. S Afr Med J 58: 803–806.
-
6.
Brown JL, Domininik JW, Morrissey RL, 1981. Respiratory infectivity of a recently isolated Egyptian strain of Rift Valley fever virus. Infect Immun 33: 848–853.
-
7.
Daubney R, Hudson JR, Garnham PC, 1931. Enzootic hepatitis or Rift Valley fever. An undescribed virus disease of sheep, cattle and humans from east Africa. J Pathol Bacteriol 34: 545–579.
-
8.
Imam IZ, Darwish MA, El-Karamany R, 1979. An epidemic of Rift Valley fever in Egypt. 1. Diagnosis of Rift Valley fever in man. Bull World Health Organ 57: 437–439.
-
9.
Woods CW, Karpati AM, Grein T, McCarthy N, Gaturuku P, Muchiri E, Dunster L, Henderson A, Kahn AS, Swanepoel R, Bonmarin I, Martin L, Mann P, Smoak BL, Ryan M, Ksiazek TG, Arthur RR, Ndikuyeze A, Agata NN, Peters CJ; World Health Organization Hemorrhagic Fever Task Force, 2002. An outbreak of Rift Valley fever in Northeastern Kenya, 1997–1998. Emerg Infect Dis 8: 138–144.
-
10.
Madani TA, Al-Mazrou YY, Al-Jeffri MH, Mishkhas AA, Al-Rabeah AM, Turkistani AM, Al-Sayed MO, Abodahish AA, Kahn AS, Ksiazek TG, Shobokshi O, 2003. Rift Valley fever epidemic in Saudi Arabia: epidemiological, clinical, and laboratory characteristics. Clin Infect Dis 37: 1084–1092.
-
11.
Abdo-Salem S, Gerbier G, Bonnet P, Al-Qadasi M, Tran A, Thiry E, Al-Eryni G, Roger F, 2006. Descriptive and spatial epidemiology of Rift Valley fever outbreak in Yemen 2000–2001. Ann NY Acad Sci 1081: 240–242.
-
12.
Gerdes GH, 2004. Rift Valley fever. Rev Sci Tech 23: 613–623.
-
13.
Laughlin LW, Meegan JM, Strausbaugh LJ, Morens DM, Watten RH, 1979. Epidemic Rift Valley fever in Egypt: observations on the spectrum of human illness. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 73: 603–3.
-
14.
Van Velden DJ, Meyer JD, Olivier J, Gears JHS, McIntosh B, 1977. Rift Valley fever affecting humans in South Africa: a clinicopathological study. S Afr Med J 51: 867–871.
-
15.
Al-Hazmi A, Al-Rajhi AA, Abboud EB, Ayoola EA, Al-Hazmi M, Saadi R, Ahmed N, 2005. Ocular complications of Rift Valley fever outbreak in Saudi Arabia. Ophthalmology 112: 313–318.
-
16.
Peters CJ, Meegan JM, 1994. Rift Valley fever. Beran GW, Steele JH, eds. Handbook of Zoonoses. Section B: Viral Zoonoses. Second edition. Boca Raton, FL, CRC Press, 403–420.
-
17.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 2007. Rift Valley fever outbreak–Kenya, November 2006–January 2007. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 56: 73–76.
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18.
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