Eldridge BF, Scott TW, Day JF, Tabachnick WJ, 2004. Arbovirus diseases. Eldridge BF, Edman JD, eds. Medical Entomology. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 415–460.
Moore CG, McLean RG, Mitchell CJ, Nasci RS, Tsai TF, Calisher CH, Marfin AA, Moore PS, Gubler DJ, 1993. Guidelines for Arbovirus Surveillance Programs in the United States. Fort Collins, CO: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
Kyle JL, Harris E, 2008. Global spread and persistence of dengue. Annu Rev Microbiol 62: 71–92.
Chiang CL, Reeves WC, 1962. Statistical estimation of virus infection rates in mosquito vector populations. Am J Hyg 75: 377–391.
Dohm DJ, O'Guinn ML, Turell MJ, 2002. Effect of environmental temperature on the ability of Culex pipiens (Diptera: Culicidae) to transmit West Nile virus. J Med Entomol 39: 221–225.
Richards SL, Mores CN, Lord CC, Tabachnick WJ, 2007. Impact of extrinsic incubation temperature and virus exposure on vector competence of Culex pipiens quinquefasciatus Say (Diptera: Culicidae) for West Nile virus. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 4: 629–636.
Turell MJ, O'Guinn M, Oliver J, 2000. Potential for New York mosquitoes to transmit West Nile virus. Am J Trop Med Hyg 62: 413–414.
Turell MJ, O'Guinn M, Dohm DJ, Jones JW, 2001. Vector competence of North American mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) for West Nile virus. J Med Entomol 38: 130–134.
Kramer D, Hardy JL, Presser SB, 1983. Effect of temperature of extrinsic incubation on the vector competence of Culex tarsalis for western equine encephalomyelitis virus. Am J Trop Med Hyg 32: 1130–1139.
Reisen WK, Meyer RP, Presser SB, Hardy JL, 1993. Effect of temperature on the transmission of western equine encephalomyelitis and St. Louis encephalitis viruses by Culex tarsalis (Diptera: Culicidae). J Med Entomol 30: 151–160.
Meyer RP, Hardy JL, Reisen WK, 1990. Diel changes in adult mosquito microhabitat temperatures and their relationship to the extrinsic incubation of arboviruses in mosquitoes in Kern County, California. J Med Entomol 27: 607–614.
Cowling DW, Gardner IA, Johnson WO, 1999. Comparison of methods for estimation of individual-level prevalence based on pooled samples. Prev Vet Med 39: 211–225.
Ryan J, Dave K, Emmerich E, Fernandez B, Turell M, Johnson J, Gottfried K, Burkhalter K, Kerst A, Hunt A, Wirtz R, Nasci R, 2003. Wicking assays for the rapid detection of West Nile and St. Louis encephalitis viral antigens in mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae). J Med Entomol 40: 95–99.
Chiles RE, Green EN, Fang Y, Goddard L, Roth A, Reisen WK, Scott TW, 2004. Blinded laboratory comparison of the in situ enzyme immunoassay, the VecTest wicking assay, and a reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction assay to detect mosquitoes infected with West Nile and St. Louis encephalitis viruses. J Med Entomol 41: 539–544.
Reisen WK, Fang Y, Martinez VM, 2006. Effects of temperature on the transmission of West Nile virus by Culex tarsalis (Diptera: Culicidae). J Med Entomol 43: 309–317.
Gu W, Lampman R, Novak RJ, 2003. Problems in estimating mosquito infection rates using MIR. J Med Entomol 40: 595–596.
Gu W, Lampman R, Novak RJ, 2004. Assessment of arbovirus vector infection rates using variable size pooling. Med Vet Entomol 18: 200–204.
Walter SD, Hildreth SW, Beaty BJ, 1980. Estimation of infection in populations of organisms using pools of variable size. Am J Epidemiol 112: 124–128.
Gu W, Unnasch TR, Katholi CR, Lampman R, Novak RJ, 2008. Fundamental issues in mosquito surveillance for arboviral transmission. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 102: 817–822.
Condotta SA, Hunter FF, Bidochka MJ, 2004. West Nile virus infection rates in pooled and individual mosquito samples. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 4: 198–203.
Hachiya M, Osborne M, Stinson C, Werner BG, 2007. Human eastern equine encephalitis in Massachusetts: predictive indicators from mosquitoes collected at 10 long term trap sites, 1979–2004. Am J Trop Med Hyg 76: 285–292.
Frank B, 2004. Minimum infection rates. A tool for using mosquito trap catches to predict human disease incidence. Available at: http://www.azdhs.gov/phs/edc/edrp/es/pdf/billfrankminimuminfectionrates.pdf. Accessed August 2009.
California Department of Public Health, 2009. California mosquito-borne virus surveillance and response plan. Available at: http://www.cdph.ca.gov/HealthInfo/discond/Documents/2009Mosq-SurvRespPlan.pdf. Accessed August 2009.
Georgia Department of Community Health, 2009. Mosquito surveillance in Georgia. Available at: http://oasis.state.ga.us/Arboviral/index_mosquito.asp. Accessed August 2009.
Day JF, Burgess J, Focks DA, Shroyer D, 2003. Surveillance issues. Rutledge CR, Day JF, Lord CC, O'Meara GF, Rey JR, Tabachnick WJ, eds. Florida Mosquito Control Response to the Challenge of West Nile Virus. Technical Bulletin of the Florida Mosquito Control Association No. 4. Fort Meyers, FL: Florida Mosquito Control Association, 2–8.
Reisen WK, Milby MM, Reeves WC, Meyer RP, Bock ME, 1983. Population ecology of Culex tarsalis (Diptera: Culicidae) in a foothill environment of Kern County, California: temporal changes in female relative abundance, reproductive status, and survivorship. Ann Entomol Soc Am 76: 800–808.
Gordon-Smith CE, 1987. Factors influencing the transmission of western equine encephalomyelitis virus between its vertebrate maintenance hosts and from them to humans. Am J Trop Med Hyg 37 (Suppl.): 33S–39S.
Rua GL, Quinonez ML, Velez ID, Zuluaga JS, Rojas W, Poveda G, Ruiz D, 2005. Laboratory estimation of the effects of increasing temperatures on the duration of gonotrophic cycle of Anopheles albimanus (Diptera: Culicidae). Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 100: 515–520.
Country Studies, 2008. California weather. Available at: http://countrystudies.us/united-states/weather/California/. Accessed August 2008.
McHugh CP, 1999. Survivorship and gonotrophic cycle length of Culex tarsalis (Diptera: Culicidae) near Sheridan, Placer County, California. J Med Entomol 27: 1027–1030.
Chandra G, Seal B, Hati AK, 1996. Age composition of the filarial vector Culex quinquefaciatus (Diptera: Culicidae) in Calcutta, India. Bull Entomol Res 86: 223–226.
Kolkata, cultural capital of India, 2008. Kolkata weather. Available at: www.kolkata.org.uk/weather-climate.html. Accessed August 2008.
Elizondo-Quiroga A, Flores-Suarez A, Elizondo-Quiroga D, Ponce-Garcia G, Blitvich BJ, Contreras-Cordero JF, Gonzalez-Rojas JI, Mercado-Hernandez R, Beaty BJ, Fernandez-Sales I, 2006. Gonotrophic cycle and survivorship of Culex quinquefasciatus (Diptera: Culicidae) using sticky ovitraps in Monterrey, northeastern Mexico. J Am Mosq Control Assoc 22: 10–14.
Reisen WK, 1995. Effect of temperature on Culex tarsalis (Diptera: Culicidae) from the Coachella and San Joaquin valleys of California. J Med Entomol 32: 636–645.
Microsoft Corporation, 2007. Microsoft Office Excel. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation.
R Development Core Team, 2008. R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing. Vienna, Austria: R Foundation for Statistical Computing.
Hadfield TL, Turell M, Dempsey MP, David J, Park EJ, 2001. Detection of West Nile virus in mosquitoes by RT-PCR. Mol Cell Probes 15: 147–150.
Rutledge CR, Day JF, Lord CC, Stark LM, Tabachnick WJ, 2003. West Nile virus infection rates in Culex nigripalpus (Diptera: Culicidae) do not reflect transmission rates in Florida. J Med Entomol 40: 253–258.
Vitek CJ, Richards SL, Mores CN, Day JF, Lord CC, 2008. Arbovirus transmission by Culex nigripalpus in Florida, 2005. J Med Entomol 45: 483–493.
Abel U, Schosser R, Süss J, 1999. Estimating the prevalence of infectious agents using pooled samples: biometrical considerations. Zentralbl Bakteriol 289: 550–563.
Gu W, Novak RJ, 2004. Detection probability of arbovirus infection in mosquito populations. Am J Trop Med Hyg 71: 636–638.
Katholi CR, Unnasch TR, 2006. Important experimental parameters for determining infection rates in arthropod vectors using pool screening approaches. Am J Trop Med Hyg 74: 779–785.
Shroyer DA, 1991. The 1990 Florida epidemic of St. Louis encephalitis: virus infection rates in Culex nigripalpus. J Fla Mosq Control Assoc 62: 69–71.
Day JF, 2001. Predicting St. Louis encephalitis virus epidemics: lessons from recent, and not so recent, outbreaks. Ann Rev Entomol 46: 111–138.
Broom AK, Lindsay MDA, Johansen CA, Wright AE, Mckenzie JS, 1995. Two possible mechanisms for survival and initiation of Murray Valley encephalitis virus activity in the Kimberley region of Western Australia. Am J Trop Med Hyg 53: 95–99.
Florida Department of Health, 2009. Surveillance and Control of Selected Mosquito-Borne Diseases in Florida. 2009 Guidebook. Tallahassee, FL: Division of Environmental Health.
Ezenwa VO, Godsey MS, King RJ, Guptill SC, 2006. Avian density and West Nile virus: testing associations between biodiversity and infectious disease risk. Proc Biol Soc 273: 109–117.
Kilpatrick AM, Kramer LD, Campbell SR, Alleyne O, Dobson AP, Daszak P, 2005. West Nile virus risk assessment and the bridge vector paradigm. Emerg Infect Dis 11: 425–429.
Gujral IB, Zielinski-Gutierrez EC, LeBailly A, Nasci R, 2007. Behavioral risk for West Nile virus disease, northern Colorado, 2003. Emerg Infect Dis 13: 419–425.
Kilpatrick AM, Meola MA, Moudy RM, Kramer LD, 2008. Temperature, viral genetics, and the transmission of West Nile virus by Culex pipiens mosquitoes. PLoS Pathog 4: e1000092.
Alto BW, Lounibos LP, Higgs S, Juliano SA, 2005. Larval competition differentially affects arbovirus infection in Aedes mosquitoes. Ecology 86: 3279–3288.
Nasci RS, Mitchell CJ, 1996. Arbovirus titer variation in field-collected mosquitoes. J Am Mosq Control Assoc 12: 167–171.
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Abstract Views | 348 | 260 | 7 |
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Infection rate is an estimate of the prevalence of arbovirus infection in a mosquito population. It is assumed that when infection rate increases, the risk of arbovirus transmission to humans and animals also increases. We examined some of the factors that can invalidate this assumption. First, we used a model to illustrate how the proportion of mosquitoes capable of virus transmission, or infectious, is not a constant fraction of the number of infected mosquitoes. Thus, infection rate is not always a straightforward indicator of risk. Second, we used a model that simulated the process of mosquito sampling, pooling, and virus testing and found that mosquito infection rates commonly underestimate the prevalence of arbovirus infection in a mosquito population. Infection rate should always be used in conjunction with other surveillance indicators (mosquito population size, age structure, weather) and historical baseline data when assessing the risk of arbovirus transmission.
Financial support: This study was supported by the National Institutes of Health (grant AI42164).
Authors' addresses: Dulce M. Bustamante, Escuela de Biologia, Universidad de San Carlos, Ciudad Universitaria, Guatemala City, Guatemala, E-mail: dulce_mariab@hotmail.com. Cynthia C. Lord, Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory, Department of Entomology and Nematology, University of Florida, Vero Beach, FL, E-mail: clord@ufl.edu.
Eldridge BF, Scott TW, Day JF, Tabachnick WJ, 2004. Arbovirus diseases. Eldridge BF, Edman JD, eds. Medical Entomology. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 415–460.
Moore CG, McLean RG, Mitchell CJ, Nasci RS, Tsai TF, Calisher CH, Marfin AA, Moore PS, Gubler DJ, 1993. Guidelines for Arbovirus Surveillance Programs in the United States. Fort Collins, CO: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
Kyle JL, Harris E, 2008. Global spread and persistence of dengue. Annu Rev Microbiol 62: 71–92.
Chiang CL, Reeves WC, 1962. Statistical estimation of virus infection rates in mosquito vector populations. Am J Hyg 75: 377–391.
Dohm DJ, O'Guinn ML, Turell MJ, 2002. Effect of environmental temperature on the ability of Culex pipiens (Diptera: Culicidae) to transmit West Nile virus. J Med Entomol 39: 221–225.
Richards SL, Mores CN, Lord CC, Tabachnick WJ, 2007. Impact of extrinsic incubation temperature and virus exposure on vector competence of Culex pipiens quinquefasciatus Say (Diptera: Culicidae) for West Nile virus. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 4: 629–636.
Turell MJ, O'Guinn M, Oliver J, 2000. Potential for New York mosquitoes to transmit West Nile virus. Am J Trop Med Hyg 62: 413–414.
Turell MJ, O'Guinn M, Dohm DJ, Jones JW, 2001. Vector competence of North American mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) for West Nile virus. J Med Entomol 38: 130–134.
Kramer D, Hardy JL, Presser SB, 1983. Effect of temperature of extrinsic incubation on the vector competence of Culex tarsalis for western equine encephalomyelitis virus. Am J Trop Med Hyg 32: 1130–1139.
Reisen WK, Meyer RP, Presser SB, Hardy JL, 1993. Effect of temperature on the transmission of western equine encephalomyelitis and St. Louis encephalitis viruses by Culex tarsalis (Diptera: Culicidae). J Med Entomol 30: 151–160.
Meyer RP, Hardy JL, Reisen WK, 1990. Diel changes in adult mosquito microhabitat temperatures and their relationship to the extrinsic incubation of arboviruses in mosquitoes in Kern County, California. J Med Entomol 27: 607–614.
Cowling DW, Gardner IA, Johnson WO, 1999. Comparison of methods for estimation of individual-level prevalence based on pooled samples. Prev Vet Med 39: 211–225.
Ryan J, Dave K, Emmerich E, Fernandez B, Turell M, Johnson J, Gottfried K, Burkhalter K, Kerst A, Hunt A, Wirtz R, Nasci R, 2003. Wicking assays for the rapid detection of West Nile and St. Louis encephalitis viral antigens in mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae). J Med Entomol 40: 95–99.
Chiles RE, Green EN, Fang Y, Goddard L, Roth A, Reisen WK, Scott TW, 2004. Blinded laboratory comparison of the in situ enzyme immunoassay, the VecTest wicking assay, and a reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction assay to detect mosquitoes infected with West Nile and St. Louis encephalitis viruses. J Med Entomol 41: 539–544.
Reisen WK, Fang Y, Martinez VM, 2006. Effects of temperature on the transmission of West Nile virus by Culex tarsalis (Diptera: Culicidae). J Med Entomol 43: 309–317.
Gu W, Lampman R, Novak RJ, 2003. Problems in estimating mosquito infection rates using MIR. J Med Entomol 40: 595–596.
Gu W, Lampman R, Novak RJ, 2004. Assessment of arbovirus vector infection rates using variable size pooling. Med Vet Entomol 18: 200–204.
Walter SD, Hildreth SW, Beaty BJ, 1980. Estimation of infection in populations of organisms using pools of variable size. Am J Epidemiol 112: 124–128.
Gu W, Unnasch TR, Katholi CR, Lampman R, Novak RJ, 2008. Fundamental issues in mosquito surveillance for arboviral transmission. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 102: 817–822.
Condotta SA, Hunter FF, Bidochka MJ, 2004. West Nile virus infection rates in pooled and individual mosquito samples. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 4: 198–203.
Hachiya M, Osborne M, Stinson C, Werner BG, 2007. Human eastern equine encephalitis in Massachusetts: predictive indicators from mosquitoes collected at 10 long term trap sites, 1979–2004. Am J Trop Med Hyg 76: 285–292.
Frank B, 2004. Minimum infection rates. A tool for using mosquito trap catches to predict human disease incidence. Available at: http://www.azdhs.gov/phs/edc/edrp/es/pdf/billfrankminimuminfectionrates.pdf. Accessed August 2009.
California Department of Public Health, 2009. California mosquito-borne virus surveillance and response plan. Available at: http://www.cdph.ca.gov/HealthInfo/discond/Documents/2009Mosq-SurvRespPlan.pdf. Accessed August 2009.
Georgia Department of Community Health, 2009. Mosquito surveillance in Georgia. Available at: http://oasis.state.ga.us/Arboviral/index_mosquito.asp. Accessed August 2009.
Day JF, Burgess J, Focks DA, Shroyer D, 2003. Surveillance issues. Rutledge CR, Day JF, Lord CC, O'Meara GF, Rey JR, Tabachnick WJ, eds. Florida Mosquito Control Response to the Challenge of West Nile Virus. Technical Bulletin of the Florida Mosquito Control Association No. 4. Fort Meyers, FL: Florida Mosquito Control Association, 2–8.
Reisen WK, Milby MM, Reeves WC, Meyer RP, Bock ME, 1983. Population ecology of Culex tarsalis (Diptera: Culicidae) in a foothill environment of Kern County, California: temporal changes in female relative abundance, reproductive status, and survivorship. Ann Entomol Soc Am 76: 800–808.
Gordon-Smith CE, 1987. Factors influencing the transmission of western equine encephalomyelitis virus between its vertebrate maintenance hosts and from them to humans. Am J Trop Med Hyg 37 (Suppl.): 33S–39S.
Rua GL, Quinonez ML, Velez ID, Zuluaga JS, Rojas W, Poveda G, Ruiz D, 2005. Laboratory estimation of the effects of increasing temperatures on the duration of gonotrophic cycle of Anopheles albimanus (Diptera: Culicidae). Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 100: 515–520.
Country Studies, 2008. California weather. Available at: http://countrystudies.us/united-states/weather/California/. Accessed August 2008.
McHugh CP, 1999. Survivorship and gonotrophic cycle length of Culex tarsalis (Diptera: Culicidae) near Sheridan, Placer County, California. J Med Entomol 27: 1027–1030.
Chandra G, Seal B, Hati AK, 1996. Age composition of the filarial vector Culex quinquefaciatus (Diptera: Culicidae) in Calcutta, India. Bull Entomol Res 86: 223–226.
Kolkata, cultural capital of India, 2008. Kolkata weather. Available at: www.kolkata.org.uk/weather-climate.html. Accessed August 2008.
Elizondo-Quiroga A, Flores-Suarez A, Elizondo-Quiroga D, Ponce-Garcia G, Blitvich BJ, Contreras-Cordero JF, Gonzalez-Rojas JI, Mercado-Hernandez R, Beaty BJ, Fernandez-Sales I, 2006. Gonotrophic cycle and survivorship of Culex quinquefasciatus (Diptera: Culicidae) using sticky ovitraps in Monterrey, northeastern Mexico. J Am Mosq Control Assoc 22: 10–14.
Reisen WK, 1995. Effect of temperature on Culex tarsalis (Diptera: Culicidae) from the Coachella and San Joaquin valleys of California. J Med Entomol 32: 636–645.
Microsoft Corporation, 2007. Microsoft Office Excel. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation.
R Development Core Team, 2008. R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing. Vienna, Austria: R Foundation for Statistical Computing.
Hadfield TL, Turell M, Dempsey MP, David J, Park EJ, 2001. Detection of West Nile virus in mosquitoes by RT-PCR. Mol Cell Probes 15: 147–150.
Rutledge CR, Day JF, Lord CC, Stark LM, Tabachnick WJ, 2003. West Nile virus infection rates in Culex nigripalpus (Diptera: Culicidae) do not reflect transmission rates in Florida. J Med Entomol 40: 253–258.
Vitek CJ, Richards SL, Mores CN, Day JF, Lord CC, 2008. Arbovirus transmission by Culex nigripalpus in Florida, 2005. J Med Entomol 45: 483–493.
Abel U, Schosser R, Süss J, 1999. Estimating the prevalence of infectious agents using pooled samples: biometrical considerations. Zentralbl Bakteriol 289: 550–563.
Gu W, Novak RJ, 2004. Detection probability of arbovirus infection in mosquito populations. Am J Trop Med Hyg 71: 636–638.
Katholi CR, Unnasch TR, 2006. Important experimental parameters for determining infection rates in arthropod vectors using pool screening approaches. Am J Trop Med Hyg 74: 779–785.
Shroyer DA, 1991. The 1990 Florida epidemic of St. Louis encephalitis: virus infection rates in Culex nigripalpus. J Fla Mosq Control Assoc 62: 69–71.
Day JF, 2001. Predicting St. Louis encephalitis virus epidemics: lessons from recent, and not so recent, outbreaks. Ann Rev Entomol 46: 111–138.
Broom AK, Lindsay MDA, Johansen CA, Wright AE, Mckenzie JS, 1995. Two possible mechanisms for survival and initiation of Murray Valley encephalitis virus activity in the Kimberley region of Western Australia. Am J Trop Med Hyg 53: 95–99.
Florida Department of Health, 2009. Surveillance and Control of Selected Mosquito-Borne Diseases in Florida. 2009 Guidebook. Tallahassee, FL: Division of Environmental Health.
Ezenwa VO, Godsey MS, King RJ, Guptill SC, 2006. Avian density and West Nile virus: testing associations between biodiversity and infectious disease risk. Proc Biol Soc 273: 109–117.
Kilpatrick AM, Kramer LD, Campbell SR, Alleyne O, Dobson AP, Daszak P, 2005. West Nile virus risk assessment and the bridge vector paradigm. Emerg Infect Dis 11: 425–429.
Gujral IB, Zielinski-Gutierrez EC, LeBailly A, Nasci R, 2007. Behavioral risk for West Nile virus disease, northern Colorado, 2003. Emerg Infect Dis 13: 419–425.
Kilpatrick AM, Meola MA, Moudy RM, Kramer LD, 2008. Temperature, viral genetics, and the transmission of West Nile virus by Culex pipiens mosquitoes. PLoS Pathog 4: e1000092.
Alto BW, Lounibos LP, Higgs S, Juliano SA, 2005. Larval competition differentially affects arbovirus infection in Aedes mosquitoes. Ecology 86: 3279–3288.
Nasci RS, Mitchell CJ, 1996. Arbovirus titer variation in field-collected mosquitoes. J Am Mosq Control Assoc 12: 167–171.
Past two years | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
---|---|---|---|
Abstract Views | 348 | 260 | 7 |
Full Text Views | 446 | 21 | 0 |
PDF Downloads | 223 | 28 | 0 |