ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1.
Mahmood F, Chiles RE, Fang Y, Barker CM, Reisen WK, 2004. Role of nestling mourning doves and house finches as amplifying hosts of St. Louis encephalitis virus. J Med Entomol 41: 965–972.
-
2.
Blackmore JS, Dow RP, 1958. Differential feeding of Culex tarsalis on nestling and adult birds. Mosq News 18: 15–17.
-
3.
Scott TW, Edman JD, Lorenz JH, Hubbard JL, 1988. Effects of disease on vertebrates' ability behaviorally to repel host-seeking mosquitoes. Misc Publ Entomol Soc Am 68: 9–17.
-
4.
Scott TW, Lorenz LH, Edman JD, 1990. Effects of house sparrow age and arbovirus infection on attraction of mosquitos. J Med Entomol 27: 856–863.
-
5.
Cockburn TA, Sooter CA, Langmuir AD, 1957. Ecology of western equine and St. Louis encephalitis viruses: a summary of field investigations in Weld County, Colorado, 1949 to 1953. Am J Hyg 65: 130–146.
-
6.
Milby MM, Reeves WC, 1990. Natural infection in vertebrate hosts other than man. Reeves WC, ed. Epidemiology and Control of Mosquito-Borne Arboviruses in California, 1943–1987. Sacramento, CA: California Mosquito and Vector Control Association, Inc., 26–65.
-
7.
Hamer GL, Walker ED, Brawn JD, Loss SR, Ruiz MO, Goldberg TL, Schotthoefer AM, Brown WM, Wheeler E, Kitron UD, 2008. Rapid amplification of West Nile virus: the role of hatch-year birds. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 8: 57–68.
-
8.
Gibbs SE, Allison AB, Yabsley MJ, Mead DG, Wilcox BR, Stallknecht DE, 2006. West Nile virus antibodies in avian species of Georgia, USA: 2000–2004. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 6: 57–72.
-
9.
Reisen WK, Carroll BD, Takahashi R, Fang Y, Garcia S, Martinez VM, Quiring RO, 2009. Repeated West Nile virus epidemic transmission in Kern County, California, 2004–2007. J Med Entomol 46: 139–157.
-
10.
Nemeth NM, Bowen RA, 2007. Dynamics of passive immunity to West Nile virus in domestic chickens (Gallus gallus domesticus). Am J Trop Med Hyg 76: 310–317.
-
11.
Reisen WK, Chiles RE, Martinez VM, Fang Y, Green EN, 2003. Experimental infection of California birds with western equine encephalomyelitis and St. Louis encephalitis viruses. J Med Entomol 40: 968–982.
-
12.
Holden P, Hayes RO, Mitchell CJ, Francy DB, Lazuick JS, Hughes TB, 1973. House sparrows, Passer domesticus (L.), as hosts of arboviruses in Hale County, Texas. I. Field studies, 1965–1969. Am J Trop Med Hyg 22: 244–253.
-
13.
Hopla CE, Francy DB, Calisher CH, Lazuick JS, 1993. Relationship of cliff swallows, ectoparasites, and an alphavirus in west-central Oklahoma. J Med Entomol 30: 267–272.
-
14.
Padhi A, Moore AT, Brown MB, Foster JE, Pfeffer M, Gaines KP, O'Brien VA, Strickler SA, Johnson AE, Brown CR, 2008. Phylogeographical structure and evolutionary history of two Buggy Creek virus lineages in the western Great Plains of North America. J Gen Virol 89: 2122–2131.
-
15.
Huyvaert KP, Moore AT, Panella NA, Edwards EA, Brown MB, Komar N, Brown CR, 2008. Experimental inoculation of house sparrows (Passer domesticus) with Buggy Creek virus. J Wildl Dis 44: 331–340.
-
16.
O'Brien VA, Meteyer CU, Ip HS, Long RR, Brown CR, 2010. Pathology and virus detection in tissues of nestling house sparrows naturally infected with Buggy Creek virus. J Wildl Dis 46: 23–32.
-
17.
Nemeth NM, Hahn DC, Gould DH, Bowen RA, 2006. Experimental West Nile virus infection in eastern screech owls (Megascops asio). Avian Dis 50: 252–258.
-
18.
Ellis AE, Mead DG, Allison AB, Stallknecht DE, Howerth EW, 2007. Pathology and epidemiology of natural West Nile viral infection of raptors in Georgia. J Wildl Dis 43: 214–223.
-
19.
Wobeser G, Wobeser AG, 1992. Carcass disappearance and estimation of mortality in a simulated die-off of small birds. J Wildl Dis 28: 548–554.
-
20.
Garvin MC, Tarvin KA, Smith J, Ohajuruka OA, Grimes SD, 2004. Patterns of West Nile virus infection in Ohio blue jays: implications for initiation of the annual cycle. Am J Trop Med Hyg 70: 566–570.
-
21.
Loss SR, Hamer GL, Goldberg TL, Ruiz MO, Kitron UD, Walker ED, Brawn JD, 2009. Nestling passerines are not important hosts for amplification of West Nile virus in Chicago, Illinois. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 9: 13–17.
-
22.
Koenig WD, Stahl JT, 2007. Late summer and fall nesting in the acorn woodpecker and other North American terrestrial birds. Condor 109: 334–350.
-
23.
Lowther PE, Cink CL, 2006. House sparrow (Passer domesticus), Poole A, ed. The Birds of North America Online. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Available at: http://bna.birds.cornell.edu.bnaproxy.birds.cornell.edu/bna/species/012doi:10.2173/bna.12. Accessed July 14, 2009.
-
24.
Gruwell JA, Fogarty CL, Bennett SG, Challet GL, Vanderpool KS, Jozan M, Webb JP Jr, 2000. Role of peridomestic birds in the transmission of St. Louis encephalitis virus in southern California. J Wildl Dis 36: 13–34.
-
25.
McLean RG, Kirk LJ, Shriner RB, Townsend M, 1993. Avian hosts of St. Louis encephalitis virus in Pine Bluff, Arkansas, 1991. Am J Trop Med Hyg 49: 46–52.
-
26.
Reisen WK, 2003. Epidemiology of St. Louis encephalitis virus. Monath TP, Chambers TJ, eds. The Flaviviruses: Detection, Diagnosis and Vaccine Development. San Diego, CA: Elsevier Academic Press, 139–183.
-
27.
Holden P, Francy DB, Mitchell CJ, Hayes RO, Lazuick JS, Hughes TB, 1973. House sparrows, Passer domesticus (L.), as hosts of arboviruses in Hale County, Texas. II. Laboratory studies with western equine encephalitis virus. Am J Trop Med Hyg 22: 254–262.
-
28.
McLean RG, Mullenix J, Kerschner J, Hamm J, 1983. The house sparrow (Passer domesticus) as a sentinel for St. Louis encephalitis virus. Am J Trop Med Hyg 32: 1120–1129.
-
29.
Komar N, Langevin S, Hinten S, Nemeth N, Edwards E, Hettler D, Davis B, Bowen R, Bunning M, 2003. Experimental infection of North American birds with the New York 1999 strain of West Nile virus. Emerg Infect Dis 9: 311–322.
-
30.
Reisen WK, Fang Y, Martinez VM, 2005. Avian host and mosquito (Diptera: Culicidae) vector competence determine the efficiency of West Nile and St. Louis encephalitis virus transmission. J Med Entomol 42: 367–375.
-
31.
Komar N, Panella NA, Burns JE, Dusza SW, Mascarenhas TM, Talbot TO, 2001. Serologic evidence for West Nile virus infection in birds in the New York City vicinity during an outbreak in 1999. Emerg Infect Dis 7: 621–625.
-
32.
Kent R, Juliusson L, Weissmann M, Evans S, Komar N, 2009. Seasonal blood-feeding behavior of Culex tarsalis (Diptera: Culicidae) in Weld County, Colorado, 2007. J Med Entomol 46: 380–390.
-
33.
United States Geological Survey, 2009. West Nile virus maps: historical. Available at: http://diseasemaps.usgs.gov/wnv_historical.html. Accessed July 20, 2009.
-
34.
Brown CR, Brown MB, 1996. Coloniality in the Cliff Swallow: The Effect of Group Size on Social Behavior. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
-
35.
Brown CR, Brown MB, Padhi A, Foster JE, Moore AT, Pfeffer M, Komar N, 2008. Host and vector movement affects genetic diversity and spatial structure of Buggy Creek virus (Togaviridae). Mol Ecol 17: 2164–2173.
-
36.
Brown CR, Komar N, Quick SB, Sethi RA, Panella NA, Brown MB, Pfeffer M, 2001. Arbovirus infection increases with group size. Proc R Soc Lond B 268: 1833–1840.
-
37.
Brown CR, Padhi A, Moore AT, Brown MB, Foster JE, Pfeffer M, O'Brien VA, Komar N, 2009. Ecological divergence of two sympatric lineages of Buggy Creek virus, an arbovirus associated with birds. Ecology 90: 3168–3179.
-
38.
Anderson TR, 2006. Biology of the Ubiquitous House Sparrow. New York: Oxford University Press.
-
39.
Moore AT, Edwards EA, Brown MB, Komar N, Brown CR, 2007. Ecological correlates of Buggy Creek virus infection in Oeciacus vicarius, southwestern Nebraska, 2004. J Med Entomol 44: 42–49.
-
40.
Lanciotti RS, Kerst AJ, Nasci RS, Godsey MS, Mitchell CJ, Savage HM, Komar N, Panella NA, Allen BC, Volpe KE, Davis BS, Roehrig JT, 2000. Rapid detection of West Nile virus from human clinical specimens, field-collected mosquitoes, and avian samples by a TaqMan reverse transcriptase-PCR assay. J Clin Microbiol 38: 4066–4071.
-
41.
Shi PY, Kauffman EB, Ren P, Felton A, Tai JH, Dupuis Ii AP, Jones SA, Ngo KA, Nicholas DC, Maffei J, Ebel GD, Bernard KA, Kramer LD, 2001. High-throughput detection of West Nile virus RNA. J Clin Microbiol 39: 1264–1271.
-
42.
Docherty DE, Slota PG, 1988. Use of Muscovy duck embryo fibroblasts for the isolation of viruses from wild birds. J Tissue Cult Methods 11: 165–170.
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43.
Docherty DE, Long RR, Griffin KM, Saito EK, 2004. Corvidae feather pulp and West Nile virus detection. Emerg Infect Dis 10: 907–909.
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44.
Ip H, Flint P, Franson JC, Dusek R, Derksen D, Gill R, Ely C, Pearce J, Lanctot R, Matsuoka S, Irons D, Fischer J, Oates R, Petersen M, Fondell T, Rocque D, Pedersen J, Rothe T, 2008. Prevalence of Influenza A viruses in wild migratory birds in Alaska: patterns of variation in detection at a crossroads of intercontinental flyways. Virol J 5: 71.
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45.
Ellis AE, Mead DG, Allison AB, Gibbs SE, Gottdenker NL, Stallknecht DE, Howerth EW, 2005. Comparison of immunohistochemistry and virus isolation for diagnosis of West Nile virus. J Clin Microbiol 43: 2904–2908.
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Prevalence and Pathology of West Nile Virus in Naturally Infected House Sparrows, Western Nebraska, 2008
Valerie A. O'Brien
Valerie A. O'Brien
Department of Biological Sciences, University of Tulsa, Tulsa, Oklahoma; U.S. Geological Survey, National Wildlife Health Center, Madison, Wisconsin; Center for Vectorborne Diseases, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California
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Carol U. Meteyer
Carol U. Meteyer
Department of Biological Sciences, University of Tulsa, Tulsa, Oklahoma; U.S. Geological Survey, National Wildlife Health Center, Madison, Wisconsin; Center for Vectorborne Diseases, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California
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William K. Reisen
William K. Reisen
Department of Biological Sciences, University of Tulsa, Tulsa, Oklahoma; U.S. Geological Survey, National Wildlife Health Center, Madison, Wisconsin; Center for Vectorborne Diseases, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California
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Hon S. Ip
Hon S. Ip
Department of Biological Sciences, University of Tulsa, Tulsa, Oklahoma; U.S. Geological Survey, National Wildlife Health Center, Madison, Wisconsin; Center for Vectorborne Diseases, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California
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Charles R. Brown
Charles R. Brown
Department of Biological Sciences, University of Tulsa, Tulsa, Oklahoma; U.S. Geological Survey, National Wildlife Health Center, Madison, Wisconsin; Center for Vectorborne Diseases, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California
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Nestling birds are rarely sampled in the field for most arboviruses, yet they may be important in arbovirus amplification cycles. We sampled both nestling and adult house sparrows (Passer domesticus) in western Nebraska for West Nile virus (WNV) or WNV-specific antibodies throughout the summer of 2008 and describe pathology in naturally infected nestlings. Across the summer, 4% of nestling house sparrows were WNV-positive; for the month of August alone, 12.3% were positive. Two WNV-positive nestlings exhibited encephalitis, splenomegaly, hepatic necrosis, nephrosis, and myocarditis. One nestling sparrow had large mural thrombi in the atria and ventricle and immunohistochemical staining of WNV antigen in multiple organs including the wall of the aorta and pulmonary artery; cardiac insufficiency thus may have been a cause of death. Adult house sparrows showed an overall seroprevalence of 13.8% that did not change significantly across the summer months. The WNV-positive nestlings and the majority of seropositive adults were detected within separate spatial clusters. Nestling birds, especially those reared late in the summer when WNV activity is typically greatest, may be important in virus amplification.
Author Notes
Financial support: This work was funded by NIH grant AI057569 and NSF grant DEB-0514824 (to CRB) and NIH grant AI55607 (to WKR).
Authors' addresses: Valerie A. O'Brien, Department of Entomology and Plant Pathology, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, E-mail: valerie.obrien@okstate.edu. Charles R. Brown, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Tulsa, Tulsa, OK, E-mail: charles-brown@utulsa.edu. Carol U. Meteyer and Hon S. Ip, U.S. Geological Survey, National Wildlife Health Center, Madison, WI, E-mails: cmeteyer@usgs.gov and hip@usgs.gov. William K. Reisen, Center for Vectorborne Diseases, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA, E-mail: arbo123@pacbell.net.
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1.
Mahmood F, Chiles RE, Fang Y, Barker CM, Reisen WK, 2004. Role of nestling mourning doves and house finches as amplifying hosts of St. Louis encephalitis virus. J Med Entomol 41: 965–972.
-
2.
Blackmore JS, Dow RP, 1958. Differential feeding of Culex tarsalis on nestling and adult birds. Mosq News 18: 15–17.
-
3.
Scott TW, Edman JD, Lorenz JH, Hubbard JL, 1988. Effects of disease on vertebrates' ability behaviorally to repel host-seeking mosquitoes. Misc Publ Entomol Soc Am 68: 9–17.
-
4.
Scott TW, Lorenz LH, Edman JD, 1990. Effects of house sparrow age and arbovirus infection on attraction of mosquitos. J Med Entomol 27: 856–863.
-
5.
Cockburn TA, Sooter CA, Langmuir AD, 1957. Ecology of western equine and St. Louis encephalitis viruses: a summary of field investigations in Weld County, Colorado, 1949 to 1953. Am J Hyg 65: 130–146.
-
6.
Milby MM, Reeves WC, 1990. Natural infection in vertebrate hosts other than man. Reeves WC, ed. Epidemiology and Control of Mosquito-Borne Arboviruses in California, 1943–1987. Sacramento, CA: California Mosquito and Vector Control Association, Inc., 26–65.
-
7.
Hamer GL, Walker ED, Brawn JD, Loss SR, Ruiz MO, Goldberg TL, Schotthoefer AM, Brown WM, Wheeler E, Kitron UD, 2008. Rapid amplification of West Nile virus: the role of hatch-year birds. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 8: 57–68.
-
8.
Gibbs SE, Allison AB, Yabsley MJ, Mead DG, Wilcox BR, Stallknecht DE, 2006. West Nile virus antibodies in avian species of Georgia, USA: 2000–2004. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 6: 57–72.
-
9.
Reisen WK, Carroll BD, Takahashi R, Fang Y, Garcia S, Martinez VM, Quiring RO, 2009. Repeated West Nile virus epidemic transmission in Kern County, California, 2004–2007. J Med Entomol 46: 139–157.
-
10.
Nemeth NM, Bowen RA, 2007. Dynamics of passive immunity to West Nile virus in domestic chickens (Gallus gallus domesticus). Am J Trop Med Hyg 76: 310–317.
-
11.
Reisen WK, Chiles RE, Martinez VM, Fang Y, Green EN, 2003. Experimental infection of California birds with western equine encephalomyelitis and St. Louis encephalitis viruses. J Med Entomol 40: 968–982.
-
12.
Holden P, Hayes RO, Mitchell CJ, Francy DB, Lazuick JS, Hughes TB, 1973. House sparrows, Passer domesticus (L.), as hosts of arboviruses in Hale County, Texas. I. Field studies, 1965–1969. Am J Trop Med Hyg 22: 244–253.
-
13.
Hopla CE, Francy DB, Calisher CH, Lazuick JS, 1993. Relationship of cliff swallows, ectoparasites, and an alphavirus in west-central Oklahoma. J Med Entomol 30: 267–272.
-
14.
Padhi A, Moore AT, Brown MB, Foster JE, Pfeffer M, Gaines KP, O'Brien VA, Strickler SA, Johnson AE, Brown CR, 2008. Phylogeographical structure and evolutionary history of two Buggy Creek virus lineages in the western Great Plains of North America. J Gen Virol 89: 2122–2131.
-
15.
Huyvaert KP, Moore AT, Panella NA, Edwards EA, Brown MB, Komar N, Brown CR, 2008. Experimental inoculation of house sparrows (Passer domesticus) with Buggy Creek virus. J Wildl Dis 44: 331–340.
-
16.
O'Brien VA, Meteyer CU, Ip HS, Long RR, Brown CR, 2010. Pathology and virus detection in tissues of nestling house sparrows naturally infected with Buggy Creek virus. J Wildl Dis 46: 23–32.
-
17.
Nemeth NM, Hahn DC, Gould DH, Bowen RA, 2006. Experimental West Nile virus infection in eastern screech owls (Megascops asio). Avian Dis 50: 252–258.
-
18.
Ellis AE, Mead DG, Allison AB, Stallknecht DE, Howerth EW, 2007. Pathology and epidemiology of natural West Nile viral infection of raptors in Georgia. J Wildl Dis 43: 214–223.
-
19.
Wobeser G, Wobeser AG, 1992. Carcass disappearance and estimation of mortality in a simulated die-off of small birds. J Wildl Dis 28: 548–554.
-
20.
Garvin MC, Tarvin KA, Smith J, Ohajuruka OA, Grimes SD, 2004. Patterns of West Nile virus infection in Ohio blue jays: implications for initiation of the annual cycle. Am J Trop Med Hyg 70: 566–570.
-
21.
Loss SR, Hamer GL, Goldberg TL, Ruiz MO, Kitron UD, Walker ED, Brawn JD, 2009. Nestling passerines are not important hosts for amplification of West Nile virus in Chicago, Illinois. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 9: 13–17.
-
22.
Koenig WD, Stahl JT, 2007. Late summer and fall nesting in the acorn woodpecker and other North American terrestrial birds. Condor 109: 334–350.
-
23.
Lowther PE, Cink CL, 2006. House sparrow (Passer domesticus), Poole A, ed. The Birds of North America Online. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Available at: http://bna.birds.cornell.edu.bnaproxy.birds.cornell.edu/bna/species/012doi:10.2173/bna.12. Accessed July 14, 2009.
-
24.
Gruwell JA, Fogarty CL, Bennett SG, Challet GL, Vanderpool KS, Jozan M, Webb JP Jr, 2000. Role of peridomestic birds in the transmission of St. Louis encephalitis virus in southern California. J Wildl Dis 36: 13–34.
-
25.
McLean RG, Kirk LJ, Shriner RB, Townsend M, 1993. Avian hosts of St. Louis encephalitis virus in Pine Bluff, Arkansas, 1991. Am J Trop Med Hyg 49: 46–52.
-
26.
Reisen WK, 2003. Epidemiology of St. Louis encephalitis virus. Monath TP, Chambers TJ, eds. The Flaviviruses: Detection, Diagnosis and Vaccine Development. San Diego, CA: Elsevier Academic Press, 139–183.
-
27.
Holden P, Francy DB, Mitchell CJ, Hayes RO, Lazuick JS, Hughes TB, 1973. House sparrows, Passer domesticus (L.), as hosts of arboviruses in Hale County, Texas. II. Laboratory studies with western equine encephalitis virus. Am J Trop Med Hyg 22: 254–262.
-
28.
McLean RG, Mullenix J, Kerschner J, Hamm J, 1983. The house sparrow (Passer domesticus) as a sentinel for St. Louis encephalitis virus. Am J Trop Med Hyg 32: 1120–1129.
-
29.
Komar N, Langevin S, Hinten S, Nemeth N, Edwards E, Hettler D, Davis B, Bowen R, Bunning M, 2003. Experimental infection of North American birds with the New York 1999 strain of West Nile virus. Emerg Infect Dis 9: 311–322.
-
30.
Reisen WK, Fang Y, Martinez VM, 2005. Avian host and mosquito (Diptera: Culicidae) vector competence determine the efficiency of West Nile and St. Louis encephalitis virus transmission. J Med Entomol 42: 367–375.
-
31.
Komar N, Panella NA, Burns JE, Dusza SW, Mascarenhas TM, Talbot TO, 2001. Serologic evidence for West Nile virus infection in birds in the New York City vicinity during an outbreak in 1999. Emerg Infect Dis 7: 621–625.
-
32.
Kent R, Juliusson L, Weissmann M, Evans S, Komar N, 2009. Seasonal blood-feeding behavior of Culex tarsalis (Diptera: Culicidae) in Weld County, Colorado, 2007. J Med Entomol 46: 380–390.
-
33.
United States Geological Survey, 2009. West Nile virus maps: historical. Available at: http://diseasemaps.usgs.gov/wnv_historical.html. Accessed July 20, 2009.
-
34.
Brown CR, Brown MB, 1996. Coloniality in the Cliff Swallow: The Effect of Group Size on Social Behavior. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
-
35.
Brown CR, Brown MB, Padhi A, Foster JE, Moore AT, Pfeffer M, Komar N, 2008. Host and vector movement affects genetic diversity and spatial structure of Buggy Creek virus (Togaviridae). Mol Ecol 17: 2164–2173.
-
36.
Brown CR, Komar N, Quick SB, Sethi RA, Panella NA, Brown MB, Pfeffer M, 2001. Arbovirus infection increases with group size. Proc R Soc Lond B 268: 1833–1840.
-
37.
Brown CR, Padhi A, Moore AT, Brown MB, Foster JE, Pfeffer M, O'Brien VA, Komar N, 2009. Ecological divergence of two sympatric lineages of Buggy Creek virus, an arbovirus associated with birds. Ecology 90: 3168–3179.
-
38.
Anderson TR, 2006. Biology of the Ubiquitous House Sparrow. New York: Oxford University Press.
-
39.
Moore AT, Edwards EA, Brown MB, Komar N, Brown CR, 2007. Ecological correlates of Buggy Creek virus infection in Oeciacus vicarius, southwestern Nebraska, 2004. J Med Entomol 44: 42–49.
-
40.
Lanciotti RS, Kerst AJ, Nasci RS, Godsey MS, Mitchell CJ, Savage HM, Komar N, Panella NA, Allen BC, Volpe KE, Davis BS, Roehrig JT, 2000. Rapid detection of West Nile virus from human clinical specimens, field-collected mosquitoes, and avian samples by a TaqMan reverse transcriptase-PCR assay. J Clin Microbiol 38: 4066–4071.
-
41.
Shi PY, Kauffman EB, Ren P, Felton A, Tai JH, Dupuis Ii AP, Jones SA, Ngo KA, Nicholas DC, Maffei J, Ebel GD, Bernard KA, Kramer LD, 2001. High-throughput detection of West Nile virus RNA. J Clin Microbiol 39: 1264–1271.
-
42.
Docherty DE, Slota PG, 1988. Use of Muscovy duck embryo fibroblasts for the isolation of viruses from wild birds. J Tissue Cult Methods 11: 165–170.
-
43.
Docherty DE, Long RR, Griffin KM, Saito EK, 2004. Corvidae feather pulp and West Nile virus detection. Emerg Infect Dis 10: 907–909.
-
44.
Ip H, Flint P, Franson JC, Dusek R, Derksen D, Gill R, Ely C, Pearce J, Lanctot R, Matsuoka S, Irons D, Fischer J, Oates R, Petersen M, Fondell T, Rocque D, Pedersen J, Rothe T, 2008. Prevalence of Influenza A viruses in wild migratory birds in Alaska: patterns of variation in detection at a crossroads of intercontinental flyways. Virol J 5: 71.
-
45.
Ellis AE, Mead DG, Allison AB, Gibbs SE, Gottdenker NL, Stallknecht DE, Howerth EW, 2005. Comparison of immunohistochemistry and virus isolation for diagnosis of West Nile virus. J Clin Microbiol 43: 2904–2908.
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