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RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
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-
1.
World Health Organization, 2004. Water, sanitation, and hygiene links to health: facts and figures. Available at: http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/publications/facts2004/en/. Accessed February 27, 2009.
-
2.
United Nations, 2000. Millennium Development Goals. Available at: http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/. Accessed February 27, 2009.
-
3.
Ramakrishna B, Kang G, Rajan D, Mathan M, Mathan V, 1996. Isolation of Vibrio cholerae 0139 from the drinking water supply during an epidemic of cholera. Trop Med Int Health 1: 854–858.
-
4.
Pai M, Kang G, Ramakrishna B, Venkataraman A, Muliyil J, 1997. An epidemic of diarrhea in south India caused by enteroaggregative Escherichia coli. Indian J Med Res 106: 7–12.
-
5.
Kang G, Ramakrishna B, Daniel J, Mathan M, Mathan V, 2001. Epidemiological and laboratory investigation of outbreaks of diarrhoea in rural South India: implications for control of disease. Epidemiol Infect 127: 107–112.
-
6.
Sarkar R, Prabhakar A, Manickam S, Selvapandian D, Raghava M, Kang G, Balraj V, 2007. Epidemiological investigation of an outbreak of acute diarrhoeal disease using geographic information systems. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 101: 587–593.
-
7.
Jensen P, Ensink J, Jayasinghe G, Van der Hoek W, Cairncross S, Dalsgaard A, 2002. Domestic transmission routes of pathogens: the problem of in-house contamination of drinking water during storage in developing countries. Trop Med Int Health 7: 604.
-
8.
Brick T, Primrose B, Chandresekhar R, Roy S, Muliyil J, Kang G, 2004. Water contamination in urban south India: household storage practices and their implications for water safety and enteric infections. Int J Hyg Environ Health 207: 1–8.
-
9.
Roberts L, Chartier Y, Chartier O, Malenga G, Toole M, Rodka H, 2001. Keeping clean water clean in a Malawi refugee camp: a randomized intervention trial. Bull World Health Organ 79: 280–287.
-
10.
Tumwine JK, 2005. Clean drinking water for homes in Africa and other less developed countries. BMJ 331: 468–469.
-
11.
Madsen M, Schlundt J, Omer EF, 1987. Effect of water coagulation by seeds of Moringa oleifera on bacterial concentrations. J Trop Med Hyg 90: 101–109.
-
12.
Sutherland J, 1996. Moringa oleifera in water treatment. Available at: http://www.le.ac.uk/engineering/staff/Sutherland/moringa/water/water.htm. Accessed March 3, 2009.
-
13.
Sutherland J, Folkard G, Mtawali M, Grant W, 1994. Moringa oleifera as a natural coagulant. Proceedings of the 20th Water, Engineering, and Development Center International Conference: Affordable Water Supply and Sanitation. Colombo, Sri Lanka: WEDC.
-
14.
Broin M, Santaella C, Cuine S, Kokou K, Peltier G, Joet T, 2002. Flocculent activity of a recombinant protein from Moringa oleifera Lam. seeds. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 60: 114–119.
-
15.
Amagloh FK, Benang A, 2009. Effectiveness of Moringa oleifera seed as a coagulant for water purification. African Journal of Agricultural Research 4: 119–123.
-
16.
Ayotunde E, Fagbenro O, Adebayo O, Amoo A, 2004. Toxicity of Aqueous Extracts of Drumstick, Moringa oleifera, Seeds to Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus, Fingerlings and Adults. Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium on Tilapia in Aquaculture. Manila, Phillipines, 200–208.
-
17.
Grabow W, Slabert JL, Morgan W, Jahn S, 1985. Toxicity and mutagenicity evaluation of water coagulated with Moringa oleifera seed preparation using fish protozoan, bacterial coliphage, enzyme, and Salmonella assay. Water SA 11: 9–14.
-
18.
Ezeji J, 2008. Mor-sand filter. Available at: http://www.joachimezeji.com/mor-sand-filter/. Accessed March 3, 2009.
-
19.
Swerdlow D, Mintz E, Rodriguez M, Tejada E, Ocampo C, Espejo L, Greene K, Saldana W, Seminario L, Tauxe R, 1992. Waterborne transmission of epidemic cholera in Trujillo, Peru: lessons for a continent at risk. Lancet 340: 28–33.
-
20.
CDC/CARE Health Initiative, 2003. Safe Water Systems for the Developing World: A Handbook for Implementing Household-Based Water Treatment and Safe Storage Projects. Second printing. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/safewater/manual/sws_manual.pdf. Accessed March 1, 2009.
-
21.
Sobel JM, Mendoza CE, Passaro D, Cano F, Baier K, Racioppi F, Hutwagner L, Mintz E, 1998. Reduction of fecal contamination of street-vended beverages in Guatemala by a simple system for water purification and storage, handwashing, and beverage storage. Am J Trop Med Hyg 59: 380–387.
-
22.
Quick R, Venczel L, Mintz E, Soleto L, Aparicio J, Gironaz M, Hutwagner L, Greene K, Bopp C, Maloney K, Chavez D, Sobsey M, Tauxe R, 1999. Diarrhoea prevention in Bolivia through point-of-use water treatment and safe storage: a promising new strategy. Epidemiol Infect 122: 83–90.
-
23.
Bing Fang H, Jaakkola J, Guo H, 2008. Water disinfection by-products and the risk of specific birth defects: a population-based cross-sectional study in Taiwan. Environ Health 7: 23.
-
24.
Government of India Ministry of Rural Development, 2009. National Rural Drinking Water Programme: Movement Towards Ensuring People's Drinking Water Security in Rural India. Available at: http://ddws.nic.in/popups/FinalRWSGuideLines.pdf. Accessed March 1, 2009.
-
25.
Jacob A, Ramani S, Banerjee I, Kang G, 2007. Efficacy and acceptability of chlorine dioxide water. Indian J Med Microbiol 25: 74–75.
-
26.
Freeman M, Quick R, Rheingans R, Abbott D, 2003. Removing barriers to point-of-use water treatment products through social marketing and entrepreneurship: a case study in Western Kenya.
-
27.
Makutsa P, Nzaku K, Ogutu P, Barasa P, Ombeki S, Mwaki A, Quick R, 2001. Challenges in implementing a point-of-use water quality intervention in rural Kenya. Am J Public Health 91: 1571–1573.
-
28.
Cochran W, Cox G, 1957. Experimental Designs. New York: Wiley.
-
29.
Senior B, 1989. Examination of water, milk, food and air. Collee J, Duguid J, Fraser A, Marmion B, eds. Practical Medical Microbiology. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone Press, 204–213.
-
30.
Government of India Demographic and Health Survey, 2006. Demographic and Health Survey 2005–2006. Available at: http://www.measuredhs.com/pubs/pdf/FRIND3/02Chapter02.pdf. Accessed March 3, 2009.
-
31.
Clasen T, McLaughlin C, Nayaar N, Boisson S, Gupta R, Desai D, Shah N, 2008. Microbiological effectiveness and cost of disinfecting water by boiling in semi-urban India. J Trop Med Hyg 79: 407–413.
-
32.
Banda K, Sarkar R, Gopal S, Govindarajan J, Harijan B, Jeyakumar M, Mitta P, Sadanala M, Selwyn T, Suresh C, 2007. Water handling, sanitation and defecation practices in rural southern India: a knowledge, attitudes and practices study. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 101: 1124–1130.
-
33.
Luby S, Agboatwalla M, Feikin D, Painter J, Billhimer W, Altaf A, Hoekstra R, 2005. Effect of handwashing on child health: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 366: 225–233.
-
34.
Stratford Pharmacy, 2009. Cost of chlorine neutralizing tablets: US$0.07 each, 1 tablet to 1 liter. Available at: www.stratford-pharmacy.co.uk. Accessed March 3, 2009.
-
35.
Sobsey MD, Stauber CE, Casanova LM, Brown JM, Elliott MA, 2008. Point of use household drinking water filtration: a practical, effective solution for providing sustained access to safe drinking water in the developing world. Environ Sci Technol 42: 4261–4267.
| Past two years | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 923 | 722 | 320 |
| Full Text Views | 731 | 8 | 0 |
| PDF Downloads | 206 | 6 | 0 |
Point-of-Use Interventions to Decrease Contamination of Drinking Water: A Randomized, Controlled Pilot Study on Efficacy, Effectiveness, and Acceptability of Closed Containers, Moringa oleifera, and In-home Chlorination in Rural South India
Jacqueline Firth
Jacqueline Firth
Warren Alpert School of Medicine at Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island; Christian Medical College, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India
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Vinohar Balraj
Vinohar Balraj
Warren Alpert School of Medicine at Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island; Christian Medical College, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India
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Jayaprakash Muliyil
Jayaprakash Muliyil
Warren Alpert School of Medicine at Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island; Christian Medical College, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India
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Sheela Roy
Sheela Roy
Warren Alpert School of Medicine at Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island; Christian Medical College, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India
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Lilly Michael Rani
Lilly Michael Rani
Warren Alpert School of Medicine at Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island; Christian Medical College, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India
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R. Chandresekhar
R. Chandresekhar
Warren Alpert School of Medicine at Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island; Christian Medical College, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India
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Gagandeep Kang
Gagandeep Kang
Warren Alpert School of Medicine at Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island; Christian Medical College, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India
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To assess water contamination and the relative effectiveness of three options for point-of-use water treatment in South India, we conducted a 6-month randomized, controlled intervention trial using chlorine, Moringa oleifera seeds, a closed valved container, and controls. One hundred twenty-six families participated. Approximately 70% of public drinking water sources had thermotolerant coliform counts > 100/100 mL. Neither M. oleifera seeds nor containers reduced coliform counts in water samples from participants' homes. Chlorine reduced thermotolerant coliform counts to potable levels, but was less acceptable to participants. Laboratory testing of M. oleifera seeds in water from the village confirmed the lack of reduction in coliform counts, in contrast to the improvement seen with Escherichia coli seeded distilled water. This discrepancy merits further study, as M. oleifera was effective in reducing coliform counts in other studies and compliance with Moringa use in this study was high.
Author Notes
Financial support: This study was supported by the Fluid Research Funds of Christian Medical College. Jacqueline Firth received financial and logistical support from the Fogarty-Ellison Fellowship administered by the U.S. National Institutes of Health for this research as a medical student.
Authors' addresses: Jacqueline Firth, Combined Internal Medicine/Pediatrics residency, Warren Alpert School of Medicine at Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island, E-mail: jacqfirt@gmail.com. Vinohar Balraj, Department of Community Health, Christian Medical College, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India, E-mail: Vinohar@cmcvellore.ac.in. Jayaprakash Muliyil, Department of Community Health, Christian Medical College, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India, E-mail: Jayaprakash@cmcvellore.ac.in. Sheela Roy, Department of Gastroenterology, Christian Medical College, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India, E-mail: wellcome@cmcvellore.ac.in. Lilly Michael Rani, Department of Gastroenterology, Christian Medical College, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India, E-mail: wellcome@cmcvellore.ac.in. R. Chandresekhar, Department of Gastroenterology, Christian Medical College, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India, E-mail: wellcome@cmcvellore.ac.in. Gagandeep Kang, Department of Gastroenterology, Christian Medical College, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India, E-mail: gkang@cmcvellore.ac.in.
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1.
World Health Organization, 2004. Water, sanitation, and hygiene links to health: facts and figures. Available at: http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/publications/facts2004/en/. Accessed February 27, 2009.
-
2.
United Nations, 2000. Millennium Development Goals. Available at: http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/. Accessed February 27, 2009.
-
3.
Ramakrishna B, Kang G, Rajan D, Mathan M, Mathan V, 1996. Isolation of Vibrio cholerae 0139 from the drinking water supply during an epidemic of cholera. Trop Med Int Health 1: 854–858.
-
4.
Pai M, Kang G, Ramakrishna B, Venkataraman A, Muliyil J, 1997. An epidemic of diarrhea in south India caused by enteroaggregative Escherichia coli. Indian J Med Res 106: 7–12.
-
5.
Kang G, Ramakrishna B, Daniel J, Mathan M, Mathan V, 2001. Epidemiological and laboratory investigation of outbreaks of diarrhoea in rural South India: implications for control of disease. Epidemiol Infect 127: 107–112.
-
6.
Sarkar R, Prabhakar A, Manickam S, Selvapandian D, Raghava M, Kang G, Balraj V, 2007. Epidemiological investigation of an outbreak of acute diarrhoeal disease using geographic information systems. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 101: 587–593.
-
7.
Jensen P, Ensink J, Jayasinghe G, Van der Hoek W, Cairncross S, Dalsgaard A, 2002. Domestic transmission routes of pathogens: the problem of in-house contamination of drinking water during storage in developing countries. Trop Med Int Health 7: 604.
-
8.
Brick T, Primrose B, Chandresekhar R, Roy S, Muliyil J, Kang G, 2004. Water contamination in urban south India: household storage practices and their implications for water safety and enteric infections. Int J Hyg Environ Health 207: 1–8.
-
9.
Roberts L, Chartier Y, Chartier O, Malenga G, Toole M, Rodka H, 2001. Keeping clean water clean in a Malawi refugee camp: a randomized intervention trial. Bull World Health Organ 79: 280–287.
-
10.
Tumwine JK, 2005. Clean drinking water for homes in Africa and other less developed countries. BMJ 331: 468–469.
-
11.
Madsen M, Schlundt J, Omer EF, 1987. Effect of water coagulation by seeds of Moringa oleifera on bacterial concentrations. J Trop Med Hyg 90: 101–109.
-
12.
Sutherland J, 1996. Moringa oleifera in water treatment. Available at: http://www.le.ac.uk/engineering/staff/Sutherland/moringa/water/water.htm. Accessed March 3, 2009.
-
13.
Sutherland J, Folkard G, Mtawali M, Grant W, 1994. Moringa oleifera as a natural coagulant. Proceedings of the 20th Water, Engineering, and Development Center International Conference: Affordable Water Supply and Sanitation. Colombo, Sri Lanka: WEDC.
-
14.
Broin M, Santaella C, Cuine S, Kokou K, Peltier G, Joet T, 2002. Flocculent activity of a recombinant protein from Moringa oleifera Lam. seeds. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 60: 114–119.
-
15.
Amagloh FK, Benang A, 2009. Effectiveness of Moringa oleifera seed as a coagulant for water purification. African Journal of Agricultural Research 4: 119–123.
-
16.
Ayotunde E, Fagbenro O, Adebayo O, Amoo A, 2004. Toxicity of Aqueous Extracts of Drumstick, Moringa oleifera, Seeds to Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus, Fingerlings and Adults. Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium on Tilapia in Aquaculture. Manila, Phillipines, 200–208.
-
17.
Grabow W, Slabert JL, Morgan W, Jahn S, 1985. Toxicity and mutagenicity evaluation of water coagulated with Moringa oleifera seed preparation using fish protozoan, bacterial coliphage, enzyme, and Salmonella assay. Water SA 11: 9–14.
-
18.
Ezeji J, 2008. Mor-sand filter. Available at: http://www.joachimezeji.com/mor-sand-filter/. Accessed March 3, 2009.
-
19.
Swerdlow D, Mintz E, Rodriguez M, Tejada E, Ocampo C, Espejo L, Greene K, Saldana W, Seminario L, Tauxe R, 1992. Waterborne transmission of epidemic cholera in Trujillo, Peru: lessons for a continent at risk. Lancet 340: 28–33.
-
20.
CDC/CARE Health Initiative, 2003. Safe Water Systems for the Developing World: A Handbook for Implementing Household-Based Water Treatment and Safe Storage Projects. Second printing. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/safewater/manual/sws_manual.pdf. Accessed March 1, 2009.
-
21.
Sobel JM, Mendoza CE, Passaro D, Cano F, Baier K, Racioppi F, Hutwagner L, Mintz E, 1998. Reduction of fecal contamination of street-vended beverages in Guatemala by a simple system for water purification and storage, handwashing, and beverage storage. Am J Trop Med Hyg 59: 380–387.
-
22.
Quick R, Venczel L, Mintz E, Soleto L, Aparicio J, Gironaz M, Hutwagner L, Greene K, Bopp C, Maloney K, Chavez D, Sobsey M, Tauxe R, 1999. Diarrhoea prevention in Bolivia through point-of-use water treatment and safe storage: a promising new strategy. Epidemiol Infect 122: 83–90.
-
23.
Bing Fang H, Jaakkola J, Guo H, 2008. Water disinfection by-products and the risk of specific birth defects: a population-based cross-sectional study in Taiwan. Environ Health 7: 23.
-
24.
Government of India Ministry of Rural Development, 2009. National Rural Drinking Water Programme: Movement Towards Ensuring People's Drinking Water Security in Rural India. Available at: http://ddws.nic.in/popups/FinalRWSGuideLines.pdf. Accessed March 1, 2009.
-
25.
Jacob A, Ramani S, Banerjee I, Kang G, 2007. Efficacy and acceptability of chlorine dioxide water. Indian J Med Microbiol 25: 74–75.
-
26.
Freeman M, Quick R, Rheingans R, Abbott D, 2003. Removing barriers to point-of-use water treatment products through social marketing and entrepreneurship: a case study in Western Kenya.
-
27.
Makutsa P, Nzaku K, Ogutu P, Barasa P, Ombeki S, Mwaki A, Quick R, 2001. Challenges in implementing a point-of-use water quality intervention in rural Kenya. Am J Public Health 91: 1571–1573.
-
28.
Cochran W, Cox G, 1957. Experimental Designs. New York: Wiley.
-
29.
Senior B, 1989. Examination of water, milk, food and air. Collee J, Duguid J, Fraser A, Marmion B, eds. Practical Medical Microbiology. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone Press, 204–213.
-
30.
Government of India Demographic and Health Survey, 2006. Demographic and Health Survey 2005–2006. Available at: http://www.measuredhs.com/pubs/pdf/FRIND3/02Chapter02.pdf. Accessed March 3, 2009.
-
31.
Clasen T, McLaughlin C, Nayaar N, Boisson S, Gupta R, Desai D, Shah N, 2008. Microbiological effectiveness and cost of disinfecting water by boiling in semi-urban India. J Trop Med Hyg 79: 407–413.
-
32.
Banda K, Sarkar R, Gopal S, Govindarajan J, Harijan B, Jeyakumar M, Mitta P, Sadanala M, Selwyn T, Suresh C, 2007. Water handling, sanitation and defecation practices in rural southern India: a knowledge, attitudes and practices study. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 101: 1124–1130.
-
33.
Luby S, Agboatwalla M, Feikin D, Painter J, Billhimer W, Altaf A, Hoekstra R, 2005. Effect of handwashing on child health: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 366: 225–233.
-
34.
Stratford Pharmacy, 2009. Cost of chlorine neutralizing tablets: US$0.07 each, 1 tablet to 1 liter. Available at: www.stratford-pharmacy.co.uk. Accessed March 3, 2009.
-
35.
Sobsey MD, Stauber CE, Casanova LM, Brown JM, Elliott MA, 2008. Point of use household drinking water filtration: a practical, effective solution for providing sustained access to safe drinking water in the developing world. Environ Sci Technol 42: 4261–4267.
| Past two years | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 923 | 722 | 320 |
| Full Text Views | 731 | 8 | 0 |
| PDF Downloads | 206 | 6 | 0 |