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1
Gaffga NH, Tauxe RV, Mintz ED, 2007. Cholera: a new homeland in Africa? Am J Trop Med Hyg 77 :705–713.
-
2
Mintz ED, Guerrant RL, 2009. A lion in our village–the unconscionable tragedy of cholera in Africa. N Engl J Med 360 :1060–1063.
-
3
Griffith DC, Kelly-Hope LA, Miller MA, 2006. Review of reported cholera outbreaks worldwide, 1995–2005. Am J Trop Med Hyg 75 :973–977.
-
4
World Health Organzation, 2007. Cholera, 2006. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 31 :273–284.
-
5
Guerrant RL, Carneiro-Filho BA, Dillingham RA, 2003. Cholera, diarrhea, and oral rehydration therapy: triumph and indictment. Clin Infect Dis 37 :398–405.
-
6
Siddique AK, 1995. Failure of treatment centres to prevent cholera deaths in Goma. Lancet 346 :379.
-
7
Acosta CJ, Galindo CM, Kimario J, Senkoro K, Urassa H, Casals C, Corachan M, Eseko N, Tanner M, Mshinda H, Lwilla F, Vila J, Alonso PL, 2001. Cholera outbreak in southern Tanzania: risk factors and patterns of transmission. Emerg Infect Dis 7 :583–587.
-
8
DuBois AE, Sinkala M, Kalluri P, Makasa-Chikoya M, Quick RE, 2006. Epidemic cholera in urban Zambia: hand soap and dried fish as protective factors. Epidemiol Infect 134 :1226–1230.
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9
Gunnlaugsson G, Angulo FJ, Einarsdottir J, Passa A, Tauxe RV, 2000. Epidemic cholera in Guinea-Bissau: the challenge of preventing deaths in rural West Africa. Int J Infect Dis 4 :8–13.
-
10
Hutin Y, Luby S, Paquet C, 2003. A large cholera outbreak in Kano City, Nigeria: the importance of hand washing with soap and the danger of street-vended water. J Water Health 1 :45–52.
-
11
Mugoya I, Kariuki S, Galgalo T, Njuguna C, Omollo J, Njoroge J, Kalani R, Nzioka C, Tetteh C, Bedno S, Breiman RF, Feikin DR, 2008. Rapid spread of Vibrio cholerae O1 throughout Kenya, 2005. Am J Trop Med Hyg 78 :527–533.
-
12
Reller ME, Mong YJ, Hoekstra RM, Quick RE, 2001. Cholera prevention with traditional and novel water treatment methods: an outbreak investigation in Fort-Dauphin, Madagascar. Am J Public Health 91 :1608–1610.
-
13
Shapiro RL, Otieno MR, Adcock PM, Phillips-Howard PA, Hawley WA, Kumar L, Waiyaki P, Nahlen BL, Slutsker L, 1999. Transmission of epidemic Vibrio cholerae O1 in rural western Kenya associated with drinking water from Lake Victoria: an environmental reservoir for cholera? Am J Trop Med Hyg 60 :271–276.
-
14
Swerdlow DL, Malenga G, Begkoyian G, Nyangulu D, Toole M, Waldman RJ, Puhr DN, Tauxe RV, 1997. Epidemic cholera among refugees in Malawi, Africa: treatment and transmission. Epidemiol Infect 118 :207–214.
-
15
UNICEF, 2008. Revised country programme document (2009–2013). Available at: http://www.unicef.org/about/execboard/files/Kenya_CPD__2009-2013__revised_-_27_Oct_2008.pdf. Accessed December 23, 2008.
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16
World Health Organization, 2004. Cholera Outbreak: Assessing the Outbreak Response and Improving Preparedness. Geneva: World Health Organization.
-
17
Shultz A, Omollo J, Burke H, Qassim M, Weinberg M, Feikin DR, Breiman RF, 2009. Cholera outbreak in Kenyan Refugee camp: risk factors for illness and importance of sanitation. Am J Trop Med Hyg 80 :640–645.
-
18
United Nations Office of the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, 2009. Cholera in Zimbabwe. Available at: http://ochaonline.un.org/Default.aspx?alias=ochaonline.un.org/zimbabwe. Accessed February 12, 2009.
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19
World Health Organization, 2009. Cholera in Zimbabwe—Update 4. Available at: http://www.who.int/csr/don/2009_06_09/en/index.html. Accessed June 16, 2009.
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20
Quick RE, Vargas R, Moreno D, Mujica O, Beingolea L, Palacios AM, Seminario L, Tauxe RV, 1993. Epidemic cholera in the Amazon: the challenge of preventing death. Am J Trop Med Hyg 48 :597–602.
-
21
Waldor ML, Keusch GT, 2005. Harrison’s Principles of Internal Medicine. Sixteenth edition. New York: McGraw-Hill.
-
22
Greenough WB 3rd, Gordon RS Jr, Rosenberg IS, Davies BI, Benenson AS, 1964. Tetracycline in the treatment of cholera. Lancet 1 :355–357.
-
23
Ram PK, Choi M, Blum LS, Wamae AW, Mintz ED, Bartlett AV, 2008. Declines in case management of diarrhoea among children less than five years old. Bull World Health Organ :86 :E–F.
| Past two years | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 1977 | 1668 | 332 |
| Full Text Views | 824 | 22 | 9 |
| PDF Downloads | 322 | 14 | 1 |
High Mortality in a Cholera Outbreak in Western Kenya after Post-Election Violence in 2008
O-Tipo Shikanga
O-Tipo Shikanga
Field Epidemiology and Laboratory Training Program–Kenya, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Nairobi, Kenya
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David Mutonga
David Mutonga
Field Epidemiology and Laboratory Training Program–Kenya, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Nairobi, Kenya
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Mohammed Abade
Mohammed Abade
Field Epidemiology and Laboratory Training Program–Kenya, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Nairobi, Kenya
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Samuel Amwayi
Samuel Amwayi
Field Epidemiology and Laboratory Training Program–Kenya, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Nairobi, Kenya
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Maurice Ope
Maurice Ope
Field Epidemiology and Laboratory Training Program–Kenya, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Nairobi, Kenya
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Hillary Limo
Hillary Limo
Field Epidemiology and Laboratory Training Program–Kenya, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Nairobi, Kenya
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Eric D. Mintz
Eric D. Mintz
Field Epidemiology and Laboratory Training Program–Kenya, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Nairobi, Kenya
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Robert E. Quick
Robert E. Quick
Field Epidemiology and Laboratory Training Program–Kenya, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Nairobi, Kenya
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Robert F. Breiman
Robert F. Breiman
Field Epidemiology and Laboratory Training Program–Kenya, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Nairobi, Kenya
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Daniel R. Feikin
Daniel R. Feikin
Field Epidemiology and Laboratory Training Program–Kenya, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Nairobi, Kenya
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In 2008, a cholera outbreak with unusually high mortality occurred in western Kenya during civil unrest after disputed presidential elections. Through active case finding, we found a 200% increase in fatal cases and a 37% increase in surviving cases over passively reported cases; the case-fatality ratio increased from 5.5% to 11.4%. In conditional logistic regression of a matched case-control study of fatal versus non-fatal cholera infection, home antibiotic treatment (odds ratio [OR] 0.049; 95% CI: < 0.001–0.43), hospitalization (OR, 0.066; 95% CI, 0.001–0.54), treatment in government-operated health facilities (OR, 0.15; 95% CI, 0.015–0.73), and receiving education about cholera by health workers (OR, 0.19; 95% CI, 0.018–0.96) were protective against death. Among 13 hospitalized fatal cases, chart review showed inadequate intravenous and oral hydration and substantial staff and supply shortages at the time of admission. Cholera mortality was under-reported and very high, in part because of factors exacerbated by widespread post-election violence.
Author Notes
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1
Gaffga NH, Tauxe RV, Mintz ED, 2007. Cholera: a new homeland in Africa? Am J Trop Med Hyg 77 :705–713.
-
2
Mintz ED, Guerrant RL, 2009. A lion in our village–the unconscionable tragedy of cholera in Africa. N Engl J Med 360 :1060–1063.
-
3
Griffith DC, Kelly-Hope LA, Miller MA, 2006. Review of reported cholera outbreaks worldwide, 1995–2005. Am J Trop Med Hyg 75 :973–977.
-
4
World Health Organzation, 2007. Cholera, 2006. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 31 :273–284.
-
5
Guerrant RL, Carneiro-Filho BA, Dillingham RA, 2003. Cholera, diarrhea, and oral rehydration therapy: triumph and indictment. Clin Infect Dis 37 :398–405.
-
6
Siddique AK, 1995. Failure of treatment centres to prevent cholera deaths in Goma. Lancet 346 :379.
-
7
Acosta CJ, Galindo CM, Kimario J, Senkoro K, Urassa H, Casals C, Corachan M, Eseko N, Tanner M, Mshinda H, Lwilla F, Vila J, Alonso PL, 2001. Cholera outbreak in southern Tanzania: risk factors and patterns of transmission. Emerg Infect Dis 7 :583–587.
-
8
DuBois AE, Sinkala M, Kalluri P, Makasa-Chikoya M, Quick RE, 2006. Epidemic cholera in urban Zambia: hand soap and dried fish as protective factors. Epidemiol Infect 134 :1226–1230.
-
9
Gunnlaugsson G, Angulo FJ, Einarsdottir J, Passa A, Tauxe RV, 2000. Epidemic cholera in Guinea-Bissau: the challenge of preventing deaths in rural West Africa. Int J Infect Dis 4 :8–13.
-
10
Hutin Y, Luby S, Paquet C, 2003. A large cholera outbreak in Kano City, Nigeria: the importance of hand washing with soap and the danger of street-vended water. J Water Health 1 :45–52.
-
11
Mugoya I, Kariuki S, Galgalo T, Njuguna C, Omollo J, Njoroge J, Kalani R, Nzioka C, Tetteh C, Bedno S, Breiman RF, Feikin DR, 2008. Rapid spread of Vibrio cholerae O1 throughout Kenya, 2005. Am J Trop Med Hyg 78 :527–533.
-
12
Reller ME, Mong YJ, Hoekstra RM, Quick RE, 2001. Cholera prevention with traditional and novel water treatment methods: an outbreak investigation in Fort-Dauphin, Madagascar. Am J Public Health 91 :1608–1610.
-
13
Shapiro RL, Otieno MR, Adcock PM, Phillips-Howard PA, Hawley WA, Kumar L, Waiyaki P, Nahlen BL, Slutsker L, 1999. Transmission of epidemic Vibrio cholerae O1 in rural western Kenya associated with drinking water from Lake Victoria: an environmental reservoir for cholera? Am J Trop Med Hyg 60 :271–276.
-
14
Swerdlow DL, Malenga G, Begkoyian G, Nyangulu D, Toole M, Waldman RJ, Puhr DN, Tauxe RV, 1997. Epidemic cholera among refugees in Malawi, Africa: treatment and transmission. Epidemiol Infect 118 :207–214.
-
15
UNICEF, 2008. Revised country programme document (2009–2013). Available at: http://www.unicef.org/about/execboard/files/Kenya_CPD__2009-2013__revised_-_27_Oct_2008.pdf. Accessed December 23, 2008.
-
16
World Health Organization, 2004. Cholera Outbreak: Assessing the Outbreak Response and Improving Preparedness. Geneva: World Health Organization.
-
17
Shultz A, Omollo J, Burke H, Qassim M, Weinberg M, Feikin DR, Breiman RF, 2009. Cholera outbreak in Kenyan Refugee camp: risk factors for illness and importance of sanitation. Am J Trop Med Hyg 80 :640–645.
-
18
United Nations Office of the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, 2009. Cholera in Zimbabwe. Available at: http://ochaonline.un.org/Default.aspx?alias=ochaonline.un.org/zimbabwe. Accessed February 12, 2009.
-
19
World Health Organization, 2009. Cholera in Zimbabwe—Update 4. Available at: http://www.who.int/csr/don/2009_06_09/en/index.html. Accessed June 16, 2009.
-
20
Quick RE, Vargas R, Moreno D, Mujica O, Beingolea L, Palacios AM, Seminario L, Tauxe RV, 1993. Epidemic cholera in the Amazon: the challenge of preventing death. Am J Trop Med Hyg 48 :597–602.
-
21
Waldor ML, Keusch GT, 2005. Harrison’s Principles of Internal Medicine. Sixteenth edition. New York: McGraw-Hill.
-
22
Greenough WB 3rd, Gordon RS Jr, Rosenberg IS, Davies BI, Benenson AS, 1964. Tetracycline in the treatment of cholera. Lancet 1 :355–357.
-
23
Ram PK, Choi M, Blum LS, Wamae AW, Mintz ED, Bartlett AV, 2008. Declines in case management of diarrhoea among children less than five years old. Bull World Health Organ :86 :E–F.
| Past two years | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 1977 | 1668 | 332 |
| Full Text Views | 824 | 22 | 9 |
| PDF Downloads | 322 | 14 | 1 |