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-
1
Black RE, Morris SS, Bryce J, 2003. Where and why are 10 million children dying every year. Lancet 361 :2226–2234.
-
2
Bryce J, Boschi-Pinto C, Shibuya K, Black RE, and WHO Child Health Epidemiology Reference Group, 2005. WHO estimates of the causes of death in children. Lancet 365 :1147–1152.
-
3
Rudan I, Boschi-Pinto C, Biloglav Z, Mulholland K, Campbell H, 2008. Epidemiology and etiology of childhood pneumonia. Bull World Health Organ 86 :408–416.
-
4
Kyobutungi C, Ziraba AK, Ezeh A, Ye Y, 2008. The burden of disease profile of residents of Nairobi’s slums: results from a demographic surveillance. Popul Health Metr 6 :1.
-
5
Greenwood B, 2008. A global action plan for the prevention and control of pneumonia. Bull World Health Organ 86 :321–416.
-
6
APHRC, 2002 Health and Livelihood Needs of Residents of Informal Settlements in Nairobi City. Occasional Study Report No.1. Nairobi, Kenya.
-
7
Amuyunzu-Nyamongo M, Taffa N, 2004. The triad of poverty, environment and child health in Nairobi’s informal settlements. J Health Popul Dev Ctries 6 :1–14.
-
8
Magadi MA, Zulu EM, Brockerhoff M, 2003. The inequality of maternal health care in urban sub-Saharan Africa in the 1990s. Population Studies 57 :347–366.
-
9
Taffa N, 2003. A comparison of pregnancy and child health outcomes between teenage and adult mothers in the slums of Nairobi, Kenya. Int J Adolesc Med Health 15 :321–329.
-
10
CBS, Ministry of Health, ORC Macro, 2004. Kenya Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) 2003. Calverton, MD: CBS, Ministry of Health, ORC Macro.
-
11
Yaka P, Sultan B, Broutin H, Janicot S, Philippon S, Fourquent N, 2008. Relationships between climate and year-to-year variability in meningitis outbreaks: a case study in Burkina Faso and Niger. Int J Health Geogr 7 :34.
-
12
Sultan B, Labadi K, Guegan J, Janicot S, 2005. Climate drives the meningitis epidemics in West Africa. PLoS Med 2 :43–49.
-
13
Dowell S, Whitney C, Wright C, Schuchat A, 2003. Seasonal patterns of invasive pneoumococcal disease. Emerg Infect Dis 5 :573–578.
-
14
Kim P, Musher D, Glezen W, Rodriguez-Barradas M, Nahm W, Wright C, 1996. Association of invasive pneumococcal disease with season, atmospheric conditions, air pollution, and the isolation of respiratory viruses. Clin Infect Dis 22 :100–106.
-
15
Roit I, 1994. Essential Immunology. Volume 8. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford, 331–333.
-
16
Salman H, Bergman M, Bessler H, Alexandrova S, Beilin B, Djaldetti M, 2000. Hypothermia affects the phagocytic activity of rat peritoneal macrophages. Acta Physiol Scand 168 :431–436.
-
17
Van Loghem JJ, 1928. An epidemiological contribution to the knowledge of the respiratory system. J Hyg (Lond) 28 :33–54.
-
18
Tornheim J, Manya A, Oyando N, Kabaka S, Breiman R, Feikin D, 2007. The epidemiology of hospitalized pneumonia in rural Kenya: the potential of surveillance data in setting public health priorities. Int J Infect Dis 11 :536–543.
-
19
Ndugwa RP, Zulu EM, 2008. Child morbidity and care-seeking in Nairobi slum settlements: the role of environmental and socioeconomic factors. J Child Health Care 12 :314–328.
-
20
Ye Y, Louis V, Simboro S, Sauerborn R, 2007. Effect of meteorological factors on clinical malaria risk among children: an assessment using village-based meteorological stations and community-based parasitological survey. BMC Public Health 7 :101.
-
21
Royston P, Ambler G, Sauerbrei W, 1999. The use of fractional polynomials to model continuous risk variables in epidemiology. Int J Epidemiol 28 :964–974.
-
22
Royston P, 2000. A strategy for modeling the effect of a continuous covariate in medicine and epidemiology. Stat Med 19 :1831–1847.
-
23
Fullerton DG, Bruce N, Gordon SB, 2008. Indoor air pollution from biomass fuel smoke is a major health concern in the developing world. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 102 :843–851.
-
24
Smith KR, Samet JM, Romieu I, Bruce N, 2000. Indoor air pollution in developing countries and acute lower respiratory infections in children. Thorax 55 :518–532.
-
25
Ezzati M, Kammen D, 2001. Indoor air pollution from biomass combustion and acute respiratory infections in Kenya: an exposure–response study. Lancet 358 :619–624.
-
26
Awasthi S, Glick H, Fletcher R, 1996. Effect of cooking fuels on respiratory diseases in preschool children in Lucknow, India. Am J Trop Med Hyg 55 :48–51.
-
27
Emuller E, Diab R, Binedell M, Hounsome R, 2003. Health risks of kerosene usage in an informal settlement in Durban, South Africa. Atmos Environ 36 :2015–2022.
-
28
Tsai H, Kuo P, Liu C, Wang J, 2001. Respiratory viral infections among paediatric inpatients and outpatients in Taiwan from 1997 to 1999. J Clin Microbiol 39 :111–118.
-
29
Kyobutungi C, Grau A, Stieglbauer G, Becher H, 2005. Absolute temperature, temperature changes and stroke risk: a case-crossover study. Eur J Epidemiol 20 :693–698.
-
30
Quigley MA, 2005. Commentary: verbal autopsies–from small scale studies to mortality surveillance systems. Int J Epidemiol 34 :1087–1088.
-
31
Etard JF, Le Hesran JY, Diallo A, Diallo JP, Ndiaye JL, Delaunay V, 2004. Childhood mortality and probable causes of death using verbal autopsy in Niakhar, Senegal, 1989–2000. Int J Epidemiol 33 :1286–1292.
-
32
Korenromp EL, Williams BG, Gouws E, Dye C, Snow RW, 2003. Measurement of trends in childhood malaria mortality in Africa: an assessment of progress toward targets based on verbal autopsy. Lancet Infect Dis 3 :349–358.
-
33
Snow RW, Armstrong JR, Forster D, Winstanley MT, Marsh VM, Newton CR, Waruiru C, Mwangi I, Winstanley PA, Marsh K, 1992. Childhood deaths in Africa: uses and limitations of verbal autopsies. Lancet 340 :351–355.
-
34
Todd JE, de Francisco A, O’Dempsey TJ, Greenwood BM, 1994. The limitations of verbal autopsy in a malaria-endemic region. Ann Trop Paediatr 14 :31–36.
-
35
Sazawal S, Black RE, and Pneumonia Case Management Trials Group, 2003. Effect of pneumonia case management on mortality in neonates, infants, and pre-school children: a meta-analysis of community based trials. Lancet Infect Dis 3 :547–556.
-
36
Marsh DR, Gilroy KE, Van de Weerdt R, Wansi E, Qazi S, 2008. Community case management of pneumonia: at a tipping point? Bull World Health Organ 86 :381–389.
| Past two years | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 30 | 30 | 4 |
| Full Text Views | 410 | 128 | 0 |
| PDF Downloads | 146 | 34 | 0 |
Seasonal Pattern of Pneumonia Mortality among Under-Five Children in Nairobi’s Informal Settlements
Yazoume Ye
Yazoume Ye
African Population and Health Research Center (APHRC), Nairobi, Kenya
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Eliya Zulu
Eliya Zulu
African Population and Health Research Center (APHRC), Nairobi, Kenya
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Maurice Mutisya
Maurice Mutisya
African Population and Health Research Center (APHRC), Nairobi, Kenya
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Benedict Orindi
Benedict Orindi
African Population and Health Research Center (APHRC), Nairobi, Kenya
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Jacques Emina
Jacques Emina
African Population and Health Research Center (APHRC), Nairobi, Kenya
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Catherine Kyobutungi
Catherine Kyobutungi
African Population and Health Research Center (APHRC), Nairobi, Kenya
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Using longitudinal data from the Nairobi Urban and Demographic Surveillance System (NUHDSS), we examined the seasonal pattern of pneumonia mortality among under-five children living in Nairobi’s slums. We included 17,787 under-five children resident in the NUHDSS from January 1, 2003 to December 31, 2005 in the analysis. Four hundred thirty-six deaths were observed and cause of death was ascertained by verbal autopsy for 377 of these deaths. Using Poisson regression, we modeled the quarterly mortality risk for pneumonia. The overall person-years (PYs) were 21,804 giving a mortality rate of 20.1 per 1,000 PYs in the study population. Pneumonia was the leading cause of death contributing 25.7% of the total deaths. Pneumonia mortality was highest in the second quarter (risk ratio [RR] = 2.3, confidence interval [CI]: 1.2–4.2 compared with the fourth quarter). The study provides evidence that pneumonia-related mortality among under-fives in Nairobi’s slums is higher from April to June corresponding to the rainy season and the beginning of the cold season.
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1
Black RE, Morris SS, Bryce J, 2003. Where and why are 10 million children dying every year. Lancet 361 :2226–2234.
-
2
Bryce J, Boschi-Pinto C, Shibuya K, Black RE, and WHO Child Health Epidemiology Reference Group, 2005. WHO estimates of the causes of death in children. Lancet 365 :1147–1152.
-
3
Rudan I, Boschi-Pinto C, Biloglav Z, Mulholland K, Campbell H, 2008. Epidemiology and etiology of childhood pneumonia. Bull World Health Organ 86 :408–416.
-
4
Kyobutungi C, Ziraba AK, Ezeh A, Ye Y, 2008. The burden of disease profile of residents of Nairobi’s slums: results from a demographic surveillance. Popul Health Metr 6 :1.
-
5
Greenwood B, 2008. A global action plan for the prevention and control of pneumonia. Bull World Health Organ 86 :321–416.
-
6
APHRC, 2002 Health and Livelihood Needs of Residents of Informal Settlements in Nairobi City. Occasional Study Report No.1. Nairobi, Kenya.
-
7
Amuyunzu-Nyamongo M, Taffa N, 2004. The triad of poverty, environment and child health in Nairobi’s informal settlements. J Health Popul Dev Ctries 6 :1–14.
-
8
Magadi MA, Zulu EM, Brockerhoff M, 2003. The inequality of maternal health care in urban sub-Saharan Africa in the 1990s. Population Studies 57 :347–366.
-
9
Taffa N, 2003. A comparison of pregnancy and child health outcomes between teenage and adult mothers in the slums of Nairobi, Kenya. Int J Adolesc Med Health 15 :321–329.
-
10
CBS, Ministry of Health, ORC Macro, 2004. Kenya Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) 2003. Calverton, MD: CBS, Ministry of Health, ORC Macro.
-
11
Yaka P, Sultan B, Broutin H, Janicot S, Philippon S, Fourquent N, 2008. Relationships between climate and year-to-year variability in meningitis outbreaks: a case study in Burkina Faso and Niger. Int J Health Geogr 7 :34.
-
12
Sultan B, Labadi K, Guegan J, Janicot S, 2005. Climate drives the meningitis epidemics in West Africa. PLoS Med 2 :43–49.
-
13
Dowell S, Whitney C, Wright C, Schuchat A, 2003. Seasonal patterns of invasive pneoumococcal disease. Emerg Infect Dis 5 :573–578.
-
14
Kim P, Musher D, Glezen W, Rodriguez-Barradas M, Nahm W, Wright C, 1996. Association of invasive pneumococcal disease with season, atmospheric conditions, air pollution, and the isolation of respiratory viruses. Clin Infect Dis 22 :100–106.
-
15
Roit I, 1994. Essential Immunology. Volume 8. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford, 331–333.
-
16
Salman H, Bergman M, Bessler H, Alexandrova S, Beilin B, Djaldetti M, 2000. Hypothermia affects the phagocytic activity of rat peritoneal macrophages. Acta Physiol Scand 168 :431–436.
-
17
Van Loghem JJ, 1928. An epidemiological contribution to the knowledge of the respiratory system. J Hyg (Lond) 28 :33–54.
-
18
Tornheim J, Manya A, Oyando N, Kabaka S, Breiman R, Feikin D, 2007. The epidemiology of hospitalized pneumonia in rural Kenya: the potential of surveillance data in setting public health priorities. Int J Infect Dis 11 :536–543.
-
19
Ndugwa RP, Zulu EM, 2008. Child morbidity and care-seeking in Nairobi slum settlements: the role of environmental and socioeconomic factors. J Child Health Care 12 :314–328.
-
20
Ye Y, Louis V, Simboro S, Sauerborn R, 2007. Effect of meteorological factors on clinical malaria risk among children: an assessment using village-based meteorological stations and community-based parasitological survey. BMC Public Health 7 :101.
-
21
Royston P, Ambler G, Sauerbrei W, 1999. The use of fractional polynomials to model continuous risk variables in epidemiology. Int J Epidemiol 28 :964–974.
-
22
Royston P, 2000. A strategy for modeling the effect of a continuous covariate in medicine and epidemiology. Stat Med 19 :1831–1847.
-
23
Fullerton DG, Bruce N, Gordon SB, 2008. Indoor air pollution from biomass fuel smoke is a major health concern in the developing world. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 102 :843–851.
-
24
Smith KR, Samet JM, Romieu I, Bruce N, 2000. Indoor air pollution in developing countries and acute lower respiratory infections in children. Thorax 55 :518–532.
-
25
Ezzati M, Kammen D, 2001. Indoor air pollution from biomass combustion and acute respiratory infections in Kenya: an exposure–response study. Lancet 358 :619–624.
-
26
Awasthi S, Glick H, Fletcher R, 1996. Effect of cooking fuels on respiratory diseases in preschool children in Lucknow, India. Am J Trop Med Hyg 55 :48–51.
-
27
Emuller E, Diab R, Binedell M, Hounsome R, 2003. Health risks of kerosene usage in an informal settlement in Durban, South Africa. Atmos Environ 36 :2015–2022.
-
28
Tsai H, Kuo P, Liu C, Wang J, 2001. Respiratory viral infections among paediatric inpatients and outpatients in Taiwan from 1997 to 1999. J Clin Microbiol 39 :111–118.
-
29
Kyobutungi C, Grau A, Stieglbauer G, Becher H, 2005. Absolute temperature, temperature changes and stroke risk: a case-crossover study. Eur J Epidemiol 20 :693–698.
-
30
Quigley MA, 2005. Commentary: verbal autopsies–from small scale studies to mortality surveillance systems. Int J Epidemiol 34 :1087–1088.
-
31
Etard JF, Le Hesran JY, Diallo A, Diallo JP, Ndiaye JL, Delaunay V, 2004. Childhood mortality and probable causes of death using verbal autopsy in Niakhar, Senegal, 1989–2000. Int J Epidemiol 33 :1286–1292.
-
32
Korenromp EL, Williams BG, Gouws E, Dye C, Snow RW, 2003. Measurement of trends in childhood malaria mortality in Africa: an assessment of progress toward targets based on verbal autopsy. Lancet Infect Dis 3 :349–358.
-
33
Snow RW, Armstrong JR, Forster D, Winstanley MT, Marsh VM, Newton CR, Waruiru C, Mwangi I, Winstanley PA, Marsh K, 1992. Childhood deaths in Africa: uses and limitations of verbal autopsies. Lancet 340 :351–355.
-
34
Todd JE, de Francisco A, O’Dempsey TJ, Greenwood BM, 1994. The limitations of verbal autopsy in a malaria-endemic region. Ann Trop Paediatr 14 :31–36.
-
35
Sazawal S, Black RE, and Pneumonia Case Management Trials Group, 2003. Effect of pneumonia case management on mortality in neonates, infants, and pre-school children: a meta-analysis of community based trials. Lancet Infect Dis 3 :547–556.
-
36
Marsh DR, Gilroy KE, Van de Weerdt R, Wansi E, Qazi S, 2008. Community case management of pneumonia: at a tipping point? Bull World Health Organ 86 :381–389.
| Past two years | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 30 | 30 | 4 |
| Full Text Views | 410 | 128 | 0 |
| PDF Downloads | 146 | 34 | 0 |