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1
Baldaeus P, 1672. Naauwkeurige beschryvinge van Malabar en Choromandel, der zelver aangrenzende ryken, en het machtige eyland Ceylon. Amsterdam: JJ van Waesberge and J van Someren.
-
2
Sawai Y, Toriba M, Itokawa H, De Silva A, Perera GLS, Kottegoda MB, 1984. Study on deaths due to snakebite in Anuradhapura District, Sri Lanka. The Snake 16 :7–15.
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3
Fox S, Rathuwithana AC, Kasturiratne A, Lalloo DG, de Silva HJ, 2006. Underestimation of snakebite mortality by hospital statistics in the Monaragala District of Sri Lanka. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 100 :693–695.
-
4
de Silva A, 1990. Colour Guide to the Snakes of Sri Lanka. Portishead, United Kingdom: R & A Publishing Ltd.
-
5
Ranasinghe L, Uragoda CG, 1983. Symposium: medically important snakes and snake-bite in Sri Lanka. Ceylon Med J 28 :107–201.
-
6
Theakston RD, Reid HA, 1977. Micro-ELISA for detecting and assaying snake venom and venom antibody. Lancet ii :639–641.
-
7
Virivan C, Veeravat U, Warrell MJ, Theakston RD, Warrell DA, 1986. ELISA confirmation of acute and past envenoming by the monocellate Thai cobra (Naja kaouthia). Am J Trop Med Hyg 35 :173–181.
-
8
Ho M, Warrell MJ, Warrell DA, Bidwell D, Voller A, 1986. A critical reappraisal of the use of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays in the study of snake bite. Toxicon 24 :211–221.
-
9
Phillips RE, Theakston RD, Warrell DA, Galagedera Y, Abeysekera DT, Dissanayake P, Hutton RA, Aloysius DJ, 1988. Paralysis, rhabdomyolysis and haemolysis caused by bites of Russell’s viper (Vipera russelli pulchella) in Sri Lanka: failure of Haffkine antivenom. Q J Med 68 :691–716.
-
10
Dong le V, Selvanayagam ZE, Gopalakrishnakone P, Eng KH, 2002. A new avidin-biotin optical immunoassay for the detection of beta-bungarotoxin and application in diagnosis of experimental snake envenomation. J Immunol Methods 260 :125–136.
-
11
Chandler HM, Hurrell JG, 1982. A new enzyme immunoassay system suitable for field use and its application in a snake venom detection kit. Clin Chim Acta 21 :225–230.
-
12
Viravan C, Looareesuwan S, Kosakarn W, Wuthiekanun V, McCarthy CJ, Stimson AF, Bunnag D, Harinasuta T, Warrell DA, 1992. A national hospital-based survey of snakes responsible for bites in Thailand. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 86 :100–106.
-
13
Warrell DA, Davidson NMcD, Greenwood BM, Ormerod LD, Pope HM, Watkins BJ, Prentice CR, 1977. Poisoning by bites of the saw-scaled viper (Echis carinatus) in Nigeria. Q J Med 46 :33–62.
-
14
Sano-Martins IS, Fan HW, Castro SC, Tomy SC, Franca FO, Jorge MT, Kamiguti AS, Warrell DA, Theakston RD, 1994. Reliability of the 20 minute whole blood clotting test (WBCT20) as an indicator of low plasma fibrinogen concentration in patients envenomed by Bothrops snakes, Butantan Institute Antivenom Study Group. Toxicon 32 :1045–1050.
-
15
Ariaratnam CA, Thuraisingam V, Kularatne SA, Sheriff MH, Theakston RD, de Silva A, Warrell DA, 2008. Frequent and potentially fatal envenoming by hump-nosed pit vipers (Hypnale hypnale and H. nepa) in Sri Lanka: lack of effective antivenom. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 102 :1120–1126.
-
16
Ariaratnam CA, Sheriff MH, Theakston RD, Warrell DA, 2008. Distinctive epidemiologic and clinical features of common krait (Bungarus caeruleus) bites in Sri Lanka. Am J Trop Med Hyg 79 :458–462.
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17
Amarasekera N, Jayawardena A, Ariyaratnam A, Hewage UC, De Silva A, 1994. Bites of a sea snake (Hydrophis spiralis): a case report from Sri Lanka. Am J Trop Med Hyg 97 :195–198.
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18
Senanayake MP, Ariaratnam CA, Abeywickrema S, Belligaswatte A, 2005. Two Sri Lankan cases of identified sea snake bites without envenoming. Toxicon 45 :861–863.
-
19
Warrell DA, 1994. Sea snake bites in the Asia-Pacific Region. Gopalakrishnakone P, ed. Sea Snake Toxinology. Singapore: Singapore University Press, 1–36.
-
20
Gnanathasan CA, Rodrigo PC, Peranantharajah S, Anitha Coonghe, Pieris P, 2008. A Case Series of Envenoming by Saw-Scaled Viper (Echis carinatus) in Sri Lanka. Global Issues in Clinical Toxinology, Melbourne. Available at: http://www.snakebiteinitiative.org/files/GICT%20Conference%202008/Session%204/Dr%20Ariaranee%20Gnanathasan.ppt. Accessed July 12, 2009.
-
21
Pathmeswaran A, Kasturiratne A, Fonseka M, Nandasena S, Lalloo DG, de Silva HJ, 2006. Identifying the biting species in snakebite by clinical features: an epidemiological tool for community surveys. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 100 :874–878.
-
22
Sellahewa KH, Gunawardena G, Kumararatne MP, 1995. Efficacy of antivenom in the treatment of severe local envenomation by the hump-nosed viper (Hypnale hypnale). Am J Trop Med Hyg 53 :260–262.
-
23
Seneviratne SL, Opanayake CJ, Ratnayake NS, Sarath Kumara KE, Sugathadasa AM, Weerasooriya N, Wickrema WA, Gunatilake SB, de Silva HJ, 2000. Use of antivenom serum in snake bite: a prospective study of hospital practice in the Gampaha district. Ceylon Med J 45 :65–68.
-
24
Premawardhena AP, de Silva CE, Fonseka MM, Gunatilake SB, de Silva HJ, 1999. Low dose subcutaneous adrenaline to prevent acute adverse reactions to antivenom serum in people bitten by snakes: randomised placebo controlled trial. BMJ 318 :730–733.
| Past two years | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 2108 | 1566 | 28 |
| Full Text Views | 1438 | 11 | 2 |
| PDF Downloads | 961 | 15 | 4 |
Syndromic Approach to Treatment of Snake Bite in Sri Lanka Based on Results of a Prospective National Hospital-Based Survey of Patients Envenomed by Identified Snakes
Christeine A. Ariaratnam
Christeine A. Ariaratnam
Department of Clinical Medicine and Department of Community Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Colombo, Colombo, Sri Lanka; Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom; Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
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Mohamed H. Rezvi Sheriff
Mohamed H. Rezvi Sheriff
Department of Clinical Medicine and Department of Community Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Colombo, Colombo, Sri Lanka; Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom; Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
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Carukshi Arambepola
Carukshi Arambepola
Department of Clinical Medicine and Department of Community Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Colombo, Colombo, Sri Lanka; Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom; Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
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R. David G. Theakston
R. David G. Theakston
Department of Clinical Medicine and Department of Community Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Colombo, Colombo, Sri Lanka; Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom; Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
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David A. Warrell
David A. Warrell
Department of Clinical Medicine and Department of Community Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Colombo, Colombo, Sri Lanka; Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom; Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
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Of 860 snakes brought to 10 hospitals in Sri Lanka with the patients they had bitten, 762 (89%) were venomous. Russell’s vipers (Daboia russelii) and hump-nosed pit vipers (Hypnale hypnale) were the most numerous and H. hypnale was the most widely distributed. Fifty-one (6%) were misidentified by hospital staff, causing inappropriate antivenom treatment of 13 patients. Distinctive clinical syndromes were identified to aid species diagnosis in most cases of snake bite in Sri Lanka where the biting species is unknown. Diagnostic sensitivities and specificities of these syndromes for envenoming were 78% and 96% by Naja naja, 66% and 100% by Bungarus caeruleus, 14% and 100% by Daboia russelii, and 10% and 97% by Hypnale hypnale, respectively. Although only polyspecific antivenoms are used in Sri Lanka, species diagnosis remains important to anticipate life-threatening complications such as local necrosis, hemorrhage and renal and respiratory failure and to identify likely victims of envenoming by H. hypnale who will not benefit from existing antivenoms. The technique of hospital-based collection, labeling and preservation of dead snakes brought by bitten patients is recommended for rapid assessment of a country’s medically-important herpetofauna.
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-
1
Baldaeus P, 1672. Naauwkeurige beschryvinge van Malabar en Choromandel, der zelver aangrenzende ryken, en het machtige eyland Ceylon. Amsterdam: JJ van Waesberge and J van Someren.
-
2
Sawai Y, Toriba M, Itokawa H, De Silva A, Perera GLS, Kottegoda MB, 1984. Study on deaths due to snakebite in Anuradhapura District, Sri Lanka. The Snake 16 :7–15.
-
3
Fox S, Rathuwithana AC, Kasturiratne A, Lalloo DG, de Silva HJ, 2006. Underestimation of snakebite mortality by hospital statistics in the Monaragala District of Sri Lanka. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 100 :693–695.
-
4
de Silva A, 1990. Colour Guide to the Snakes of Sri Lanka. Portishead, United Kingdom: R & A Publishing Ltd.
-
5
Ranasinghe L, Uragoda CG, 1983. Symposium: medically important snakes and snake-bite in Sri Lanka. Ceylon Med J 28 :107–201.
-
6
Theakston RD, Reid HA, 1977. Micro-ELISA for detecting and assaying snake venom and venom antibody. Lancet ii :639–641.
-
7
Virivan C, Veeravat U, Warrell MJ, Theakston RD, Warrell DA, 1986. ELISA confirmation of acute and past envenoming by the monocellate Thai cobra (Naja kaouthia). Am J Trop Med Hyg 35 :173–181.
-
8
Ho M, Warrell MJ, Warrell DA, Bidwell D, Voller A, 1986. A critical reappraisal of the use of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays in the study of snake bite. Toxicon 24 :211–221.
-
9
Phillips RE, Theakston RD, Warrell DA, Galagedera Y, Abeysekera DT, Dissanayake P, Hutton RA, Aloysius DJ, 1988. Paralysis, rhabdomyolysis and haemolysis caused by bites of Russell’s viper (Vipera russelli pulchella) in Sri Lanka: failure of Haffkine antivenom. Q J Med 68 :691–716.
-
10
Dong le V, Selvanayagam ZE, Gopalakrishnakone P, Eng KH, 2002. A new avidin-biotin optical immunoassay for the detection of beta-bungarotoxin and application in diagnosis of experimental snake envenomation. J Immunol Methods 260 :125–136.
-
11
Chandler HM, Hurrell JG, 1982. A new enzyme immunoassay system suitable for field use and its application in a snake venom detection kit. Clin Chim Acta 21 :225–230.
-
12
Viravan C, Looareesuwan S, Kosakarn W, Wuthiekanun V, McCarthy CJ, Stimson AF, Bunnag D, Harinasuta T, Warrell DA, 1992. A national hospital-based survey of snakes responsible for bites in Thailand. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 86 :100–106.
-
13
Warrell DA, Davidson NMcD, Greenwood BM, Ormerod LD, Pope HM, Watkins BJ, Prentice CR, 1977. Poisoning by bites of the saw-scaled viper (Echis carinatus) in Nigeria. Q J Med 46 :33–62.
-
14
Sano-Martins IS, Fan HW, Castro SC, Tomy SC, Franca FO, Jorge MT, Kamiguti AS, Warrell DA, Theakston RD, 1994. Reliability of the 20 minute whole blood clotting test (WBCT20) as an indicator of low plasma fibrinogen concentration in patients envenomed by Bothrops snakes, Butantan Institute Antivenom Study Group. Toxicon 32 :1045–1050.
-
15
Ariaratnam CA, Thuraisingam V, Kularatne SA, Sheriff MH, Theakston RD, de Silva A, Warrell DA, 2008. Frequent and potentially fatal envenoming by hump-nosed pit vipers (Hypnale hypnale and H. nepa) in Sri Lanka: lack of effective antivenom. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 102 :1120–1126.
-
16
Ariaratnam CA, Sheriff MH, Theakston RD, Warrell DA, 2008. Distinctive epidemiologic and clinical features of common krait (Bungarus caeruleus) bites in Sri Lanka. Am J Trop Med Hyg 79 :458–462.
-
17
Amarasekera N, Jayawardena A, Ariyaratnam A, Hewage UC, De Silva A, 1994. Bites of a sea snake (Hydrophis spiralis): a case report from Sri Lanka. Am J Trop Med Hyg 97 :195–198.
-
18
Senanayake MP, Ariaratnam CA, Abeywickrema S, Belligaswatte A, 2005. Two Sri Lankan cases of identified sea snake bites without envenoming. Toxicon 45 :861–863.
-
19
Warrell DA, 1994. Sea snake bites in the Asia-Pacific Region. Gopalakrishnakone P, ed. Sea Snake Toxinology. Singapore: Singapore University Press, 1–36.
-
20
Gnanathasan CA, Rodrigo PC, Peranantharajah S, Anitha Coonghe, Pieris P, 2008. A Case Series of Envenoming by Saw-Scaled Viper (Echis carinatus) in Sri Lanka. Global Issues in Clinical Toxinology, Melbourne. Available at: http://www.snakebiteinitiative.org/files/GICT%20Conference%202008/Session%204/Dr%20Ariaranee%20Gnanathasan.ppt. Accessed July 12, 2009.
-
21
Pathmeswaran A, Kasturiratne A, Fonseka M, Nandasena S, Lalloo DG, de Silva HJ, 2006. Identifying the biting species in snakebite by clinical features: an epidemiological tool for community surveys. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 100 :874–878.
-
22
Sellahewa KH, Gunawardena G, Kumararatne MP, 1995. Efficacy of antivenom in the treatment of severe local envenomation by the hump-nosed viper (Hypnale hypnale). Am J Trop Med Hyg 53 :260–262.
-
23
Seneviratne SL, Opanayake CJ, Ratnayake NS, Sarath Kumara KE, Sugathadasa AM, Weerasooriya N, Wickrema WA, Gunatilake SB, de Silva HJ, 2000. Use of antivenom serum in snake bite: a prospective study of hospital practice in the Gampaha district. Ceylon Med J 45 :65–68.
-
24
Premawardhena AP, de Silva CE, Fonseka MM, Gunatilake SB, de Silva HJ, 1999. Low dose subcutaneous adrenaline to prevent acute adverse reactions to antivenom serum in people bitten by snakes: randomised placebo controlled trial. BMJ 318 :730–733.
| Past two years | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 2108 | 1566 | 28 |
| Full Text Views | 1438 | 11 | 2 |
| PDF Downloads | 961 | 15 | 4 |