ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1
Abramo C, Fontes CJ, Krettli AU, 1995. Cross-reactivity between antibodies in the sera of individuals with leishmaniasis, toxo-plasmosis, and Chagas’ disease and antigens of the blood-stage forms of Plasmodium falciparum determined by indirect immunofluorescence. Am J Trop Med Hyg 53 :202–205.
-
2
Araujo FG, Mayrink W, 1968. Fluorescent antibody test in visceral leishmaniasis. II. Studies on the specificity of the test. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo 10 :41–45.
-
3
Bray RS, Lainson R, 1965. The immunology and serology of leishmaniasis: I. The fluorescent antibody staining technique. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 59 :535–544.
-
4
Camargo MA, Rebonato C, 1969. Cross-reactivity in fluorescent test for Trypanosoma and leishmania antibody. Am J Trop Med Hyg 18 :500–505.
-
5
Edrissian H, Darabian P, 1979. A comparison of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and indirect fluorescent antibody test in the serodiagnosis of cutaneous and visceral leishmaniasis in Iran. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 73 :289–292.
-
6
Evans TG, Krug EC, Wilson ME, Vasconcelos AW, De Alencar JE, Pearson RD, 1989. Evaluation of antibody responses in American visceral leishmaniasis by ELISA and immunoblot. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 84 :157–166.
-
7
Guimarães MCS, Celeste BJ, Castilho EA, Mineo JR, Diniz JMP, 1981. Immunoenzymatic assay (ELISA) in mucocutaneous leishmaniasis, kala-azar, and Chagas’ disease: an epimastigote Trypanosoma cruzi antigen able to distinguish between anti-Trypanosoma and anti-leishmania antibodies. Am J Trop Med Hyg 30 :942–947.
-
8
Harit EA, Kolk AHJ, Kager PA, Leeuwenburg J, Faber FJ, Muigai R, Kiugu S, Laarman JJ, 1987. Evaluation of a newly developed direct agglutination test (DAT) for serodiagnosis and seroepidemiological studies of visceral leishmaniasis: comparison with IFAT and ELISA. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 81 :603–606.
-
9
Hommel M, Peters W, Ranque J, Quilici M, Lanotte G, 1978. The micro-ELISA technique in the serodiagnosis of visceral leishmaniasis. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 72 :213–218.
-
10
Mohammed AR, Wright EP, Kager PA, Laarman JJ, Pondman KW, 1985. ELISA using intact promastigotes for immunodiagnosis of kala-azar. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 79 :344–350.
-
11
Walton BC, Brooks WH, Arjona I, 1972. Serodiagnosis of American leishmaniasis by indirect fluorescent antibody test. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 21 :296–299.
-
12
Ho M, Leeuwenburg J, Mbugua G, Wamachi A, Voller A, 1983. An enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for field diagnosis of visceral leishmaniasis. Am J Trop Med Hyg 32 :943–946.
-
13
Jahn A, Lelmett M, Diesfeld HJ, 1986. Seroepidemiological study on kala-azar in Baringo District, Kenya. J Trop Med Hyg 89 :91–104.
-
14
Burns JM Jr, Shreffler WG, Benson DR, Ghalib HW, Badaró R, Reed SG, 1993. Molecular characterization of a kinesin-related antigen of Leishmania chagasi that detects specific antibody in African and American visceral leishmaniasis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 90 :775–779.
-
15
Badaró R, Benson D, Eulalio MC, Freire M, Cunha S, Netto EM, Pedral-Sampaio D, Madureira C, Burns JM, Houghton RL, David JR, Reed SG, 1996. rK39: a cloned antigen of Leishmania chagasi that predicts active visceral leishmaniasis. J Infect Dis 173 :758–761.
-
16
Bern C, Jha SN, Joshi AB, Thakur GD, Bista MB, 2000. Use of the recombinant K39 dipstick test and the direct agglutination test in a setting endemic for visceral leishmaniasis in Nepal. Am J Trop Med Hyg 63 :153–157.
-
17
Braz RFS, Nascimento ET, Martins DRA, Wilson ME, Pearson RD, Reed SG, Jerônimo SMB, 2002. The sensitivity and specificity of Leishmania chagasi recombinant K39 antigen in the diagnosis of American visceral leishmaniasis and in differentiating active from subclinical infection. Am J Trop Med Hyg 67 :344–348.
-
18
Guimarães SF, Lemos EM, Corey R, Dietze R, 2003. Performance of recombinant K39 antigen in the diagnosis of Brazilian visceral leishmaniasis. Am J Trop Med Hyg 68 :321–324.
-
19
Kumar R, Pai K, Pathak K, Sundar S, 2001. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for recombinant K39 antigen in diagnosis and prognosis of Indian visceral leishmaniasis. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol 8 :1220–1224.
-
20
Qu JQ, Zhong L, Masoom-Yasinzai M, Abdur-Rab M, Aksu HS, Reed SG, Chang KP, Gilman-Sachs A, 1994. Serodiagnosis of Asian leishmaniasis with a recombinant antigen from the repetitive domain of a Leishmania kinesin.Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 88 :543–545.
-
21
Ritmeijer K, Melaku Y, Mueller M, Kipngetich S, O’Keeffe C, Davidson RN, 2006. Evaluation of a new recombinant K39 rapid diagnostic test for Sudanese visceral leishmaniasis. Am J Trop Med Hyg 74 :76–80.
-
22
Singh S, Gilman-Sachs A, Chang KP, Reed SG, 1995. Diagnostic and prognostic value of K39 recombinant antigen in Indian leishmaniasis. J Parasitol 81 :1000–1003.
-
23
Sundar S, Reed SG, Singh VP, Kumar PCK, Murray HW, 1998. Rapid accurate field diagnosis of Indian visceral leishmaniasis. Lancet 351 :563–565.
-
24
Singh S, Kumari V, Singh N, 2002. Predicting kala-azar disease manifestation in asymptomatic patients with latent Leishmania donovani infection by detection of antibody against recombinant K39 antigen. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol 9 :568–572.
-
25
Chappuis F, Rijal S, Soto A, Menten J, Boelaert M, 2006. A meta-analysis of the diagnostic performance of the direct agglutination test and rK39 dipstick for visceral leishmaniasis. BMJ 333 :723–728.
-
26
Zijlstra EE, Nur Y, Desjeux P, Kahill EAG, El-Hassan AM, Groen J, 2001. Diagnosing visceral leishmaniasis with the recombinant K39 strip test: experience from the Sudan. Trop Med Int Health 6 :108–113.
-
27
Bhatia A, Daifalla NS, Jen S, Badaró R, Reed SG, Skeiky YAW, 1999. Cloning, characterization and serological evaluation of K9 and K26: two related hydrophilic antigens of Leishmania chagasi. Mol Biochem Parasitol 102 :249–261.
-
28
Corkill NL, 1949. The activation of latent kala-azar in relation to protein metabolism. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 43 :261.
-
29
Alvar J, Canavate C, Gutiérrez-Solar B, Jiménez M, Laguna F, López-Vélez R, Molina R, Moreno J, 1997. Leishmania and human immunodeficiency virus coinfection: the first 10 years. Clin Microbiol Rev 10 :298–391.
-
30
Badaró R, Jones TC, Carvalho EM, Sampaio DP, Reed SG, Barral A, Teixeira R, Johnson WD Jr, 1986. New perspectives on a sub clinical form of visceral leishmaniasis. J Infect Dis 154 :1003–1011.
-
31
Evans TG, Teixeira MJ, Mcauliffe IT,Vasconcelos IAB, Vasconcelos AW, Sousa AQ, Lima JWO, Pearson RD, 1992. Epidemiology of visceral leishmaniasis in northeast Brazil. J Infect Dis 166 :1124–1132.
-
32
Cabello PH, Lima AMVM, Azevedo ES, Krieger H, 1995. Familial aggregation of Leishmania chagasi infection in northeastern Brazil. Am J Trop Med Hyg 53 :364–365.
-
33
Shido SA, Akuffo HO, Mohamed AA, Huldt G, Nilsson LA, Ouchterlony O, Thorstensson R, 1995. Visceral leishmaniasis in Somalia: prevalence of leishmanin-positive and seropositive inhabitants in an endemic area. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 89 :21–24.
-
34
D’Oliveira A Jr, Costa SRM, Barbosa AB, Orge MGO, Carvalho EM, 1997. Asymptomatic Leishmania chagasi infection in relatives and neighbors of patients with visceral leishmaniasis. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 92 :15–20.
-
35
Jerônimo SMB, Oliveira RM, Mackay S, Costa RM, Sweet J, Nascimento ET, Luz KG, Fernandes MZ, Jernigan J, Pearson RD, 1994. An urban outbreak of visceral leishmaniasis in Natal, Brazil. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 88 :386–388.
-
36
Hailu A, Menon JN, Berhe N, Gedamu L, Hassard TH, Kager PA, Olobo J, Bretscher PA, 2001. Distinct immunity in patients with visceral leishmaniasis from that in subclinically infected and drug-cured people: implications for the mechanism underlying drug cure. J Infect Dis 184 :112–115.
-
37
Le Fichoux Y, Quaranta JF, Aufeuvre JP, Lelievre A, Marty P, Suffia I, Rousseau D, Kubar J, 1999. Occurrence of Leishmania infantum parasitemia in asymptomatic blood donors living in an area of endemicity in southern France. J Clin Microbiol 37 :1953–1957.
-
38
Riera C, Fisa R, Udina M, Gállego M, Portus M, 2004. Detection of Leishmania infantum cryptic infection in asymptomatic blood donors living in an endemic area (Eivissa, Balearic Islands, Spain) by different diagnostic methods. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 98 :102–110.
-
39
Sakru N, Korkmaz M, Ozbel Y, Ertabaklar H, Sengul M, Toz SO, 2007. Investigation of asymptomatic visceral leishmaniasis cases using western blot in an endemic area in Turkey. New Microbiol 30 :13–18.
-
40
Banoo S, Bell D, Bossuyt P, Herring A, Mabey D, Poole F, Smith PG, Sriram N, Wongsrichanalai C, Linke R, O’Brian R, Perkins M, Cunningham J, Matsoso P, Nathanson CM, Olliaro P, Peeling RW, Ramsay A, 2006. Evaluation of diagnostic tests for infectious diseases: general principles. Nat Rev Microbiol 4 (12 Suppl):S21–S31.
-
41
Brazil. Ministry of Health. National Research Council. Resolution 196/96. October 10, 1996.
-
42
Badaró R, Reed SG, Barral A, Orge MGO, Jones TC, 1986. Evaluation of micro enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for antibodies in American visceral leishmaniasis: antigen selection for detection of infection-specific response. Am J Trop Med Hyg 35 :72–78.
-
43
Voller A, Bidwell DE, Bartlett A, 1976. Enzyme immunoassays in diagnostic medicine. Theory and practice. Bull World Health Organ 53 :55–65.
-
44
Camargo ME, 1966. Fluorescent antibody test for the serodiagnosis of American trypanosomiasis. Technical modification employing preserved culture forms of Trypanosoma cruzi in a slide test. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo 8 :227–234.
-
45
Cerisola JA, 1970. Immunodiagnosis of Chagas’ disease: hemagglutination and immunofluorescent test. J Parasitol 50 :409–410.
-
46
Cerisola JA, Alvarez M, De Rissio AM, 1970. Imunodiagnóstico da doença de Chagas. Evolução sorológica de pacientes com doença de Chagas. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo 12 :403–411.
-
47
Jelinek T, Eichenlaub S, Löscher T, 1999. Sensitivity and specificity of a rapid immunochromatographic test for diagnosis of visceral leishmaniasis. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 18 :669–670.
-
48
Veeken H, Ritmeijer K, Seaman J, Davidson R, 2003. Comparison of an rK39 dipstick rapid test with direct agglutination test and splenic aspiration for the diagnosis of kala-azar in Sudan. Trop Med Int Health 8 :164–167.
Comparative Study of Serologic Tests for the Diagnosis of Asymptomatic Visceral Leishmaniasis in an Endemic Area
Serologic tests have been widely used for the diagnosis of asymptomatic visceral leishmaniasis. This study evaluated five serologic tests used for the diagnosis of asymptomatic infection: enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) using promastigote antigen (ELISAp), ELISA using recombinant K39 (ELISA rK39), and K26 (ELISA rK26) antigens, an indirect immunofluorescence test using Leishmania (Leishmania) amazonensis promastigote antigen (IIFT), and an immunochromatographic test using rK39 antigen (TRALd). As a reference regarding the performance of the tests, patients with classic visceral leishmaniasis originating from Minas Gerais, Brazil (N = 36), were defined as the positive group and samples of healthy individuals from nonendemic areas (Argentina) (N = 127) were used as negative controls. Patients with other diseases such as cutaneous leishmaniasis (N = 53) and malaria (N = 56) were also studied to evaluate the chance of cross-reactivity in these tests. Finally, subjects from an area endemic for visceral leishmaniasis in Brazil (Porteirinha, northern Minas Gerais) (N = 1241) were screened for asymptomatic infection with Leishmania and Chagas disease. The sensitivity of the serologic tests was 50% (18/36), 66.7% (24/36), 69.4% (25/36), 83.3% (30/36), and 88.9% (32/36) for ELISAp, ELISA rK26, ELISA rK39, IIFT, and TRALd, respectively. Specificity, calculated using the truly negative group, was 96% (122/127) for TRALd, 97.6% (124/127) for ELISAp and IIFT, and 100% (127/127) for ELISA rK39 and rK26. Positivity in at least one test employing recombinant antigen was observed in 24 (45%) patients with cutaneous leishmaniasis and 47 (82.4%) with malaria. In the visceral leishmaniasis-endemic area, the positivity of the serologic tests ranged from 3.9% to 37.5%. The enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) tests using recombinant antigens were more frequently positive in subjects with a history of exposure to human or canine visceral leishmaniasis (ELISArK39: 14.6% [149/1017] versus 37.5% [84/224]; ELISA rK26: 12.7% [129/1017] versus 21.4% [48/224], P < 0.001 for both). Kappa agreement was low, with a maximum value of 0.449 between ELISAp and IIFT. In addition, among the 112 IIFT-positive subjects, 75 (67%) also presented positive serology for Chagas disease. In conclusion, IIFT and TRALd presented the best performance to diagnose classic cases of visceral leishmaniasis in an endemic area. Cross-reactivity of the tests with Chagas disease, cutaneous leishmaniasis, and malaria should be taken into account. However, the differences in the positivity of the tests used, together with the low agreement between results, do not permit to select the best test for the diagnosis of asymptomatic Leishmania infection.