ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1
de Silva NR, Brooker S, Hotez PJ, Montresor A, Engels D, Savioli L, 2003. Soil-transmitted helminth infections: updating the global picture. Trends Parasitol 19 :547–551.
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2
Snow RW, Guerra CA, Noor AM, Myint HY, Hay SI, 2005. The global distribution of clinical episodes of Plasmodium falciparum malaria. Nature 434 :214–217.
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Petney TN, Andrews RH, 1998. Multiparasites communities in animals and humans: frequency, structure and pathogenic significance. Int J Parasitol 28 :377–393.
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Meeusen EN, Bischof RJ, Lee CS, 2001. Comparative T-cell responses during pregnancy in large animals and humans. Am J Reprod Immunol 46 :169–179.
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Riley EM, Schneider G, Sambou I, Greenwood BM, 1999. Suppression of cell-mediated immune responses to malaria antigens in pregnant Gambian women. Am J Trop Med Hyg 40 :141–144.
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6
Fievet N, Cot M, Chougnet C, Maubert B, Bickii J, Dubois B, Hesran J, Frobert Y, Migot F, Romain F, Verhave JP, Louis F, Deloron P, 1995. Malaria and pregnancy in Cameroonian primigravidae, humoral and cellular immune responses to Plasmodium falciparum blood-stage antigens. Am J Trop Med Hyg 53 :612–617.
-
7
Bouyou-Akotet MK, Ionete-Collard DE, Mabika-Manfoumbi M, Matsiegu PB, Mavoungou E, Kombila M, 2003. Prevalence of Plasmodium falciparum infection in pregnant women in Gabon. Malar J 2 :18.
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8
Fried M, Duffy PE, 1996. Adherence of Plasmodium falciparum to chondroitin sulfate A in the human placenta. Science 272 :1502–1504.
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Beeson JG, Rogerson SJ, Cooke BM, Reedr JC, Chai W, 2000. Adhesion of Plasmodium falciparum-infected erythrocytes to hyaluronic acid in placental malaria. Nat Med 6 :86–90.
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Beck S, Mockenhaupt FP, Bienzle U, Eggelte TA, Thompson WN, Stark K, 2001. Multiplicity of Plasmodium infection in pregnancy. Am Soc Trop Med Hyg 65 :631–636.
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11
Steketee RW, Nahlen BL, Parise ME, Menendez C, 2001. The burden of malaria in pregnancy in malaria-endemic areas. Am J Trop Med Hyg 64 :28–35.
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12
Ndomugyenyi R, Kabatereine N, Olsen A, Magnusses P, 2002. Malaria and hookworm infections in relation to heamoglobin and serum ferritin levels in pregnancy in Masindi district, Western Uganda. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 102 :130–136.
-
13
Korbut R, Gryglewski RJ, 1993. Nitric oxide from polymorphonuclear leukocytes modulates red blood cell deformability in vitro. Eur J Pharmacol 234 :17–22.
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14
Starzyk D, Korbut R, Gryglewski RJ, 1997. The role of nitric oxide in regulation of deformability of red blood cells in acute phase of endotoxaemia in rats. J Physiol Pharmacol 48 :731–735.
-
15
Dondorp AM, Angus BJ, Chotivanitch K, Silamut K, Ruangveerayuth R, Hardeman MR, Kager PA, Vreeken J, White NJ, 1999. Red blood cell deformability as a predictor of anemia in severe falciparum malaria. Am J Trop Med Hyg 60 :733–737.
-
16
Adegnika AA, Agnandji ST, Chai SK, Ramharter M, Breitling M, Kendjo E, Issifou S, Yazdanbakhsh M, Kombila M, Kremsner PG, 2007. Increased prevalence of intestinal helminth infection during pregnancy in a sub-Saharan African community. Wien Klin Wochenschr 119 :712–716.
-
17
Egwunyenga AO, Ajayi JA, Nmorsi OPG, Duhlinska-Popova DD, 2001. Plasmodium/intestinal Helminth Co-infections among pregnant Nigerian women. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 96 :1055–1059.
-
18
Ronald LA, Kenny SL, Klinkenberg E, Akoto AO, Boakye I, Barnish G, Donnelly M, 2006. Malaria and anemia among children in two communities of Kumasi, Ghana: a cross-sectional survey. Malar J 5 :105.
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19
Roll Back Malaria, MEASURE Evaluation, World Health Organization, and United Nations Children’s Fund, 2004. Guidelines for Core Population Coverage Indicators for Roll Back Malaria: To Be Obtained From Household Surveys. Calverton, MD: MEASURE Evaluation.
-
20
Noedl H, Yinguen K, Laoboonchai A, Fukuda M, Sirichaisnthop J, Miller S, 2006. Sensitivity and specificity of an antigen detection ELISA for malaria diagnosis. Am J Trop Med Hyg 75 :1205–1208.
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21
Garcia LS, 2001. Diagnostic Medical Parasitology. Washington, DC: ASM Press.
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22
Hosmer D, Lemeshow S, 2001. Applied Logistic Regression in Wiley Series in Probability and Statistics. Second edition. New York: Wiley and Sons.
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23
Marchesini P, Crawley J, 2004. Reducing the Burden of Malaria in Pregnancy. Geneva: Roll Back Malaria Department, World Health Organization.
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24
Leke RF, Djokam RR, Mbu R, Leke RJ, Fogako J, Megnekou R, Metenou S, Sama G, Zhou Y, Cadigan T, Parra M, Taylor DW, 1999. Detection of the Plasmodium falciparum antigen histidine-rich protein 2 in blood of pregnant women: implications for diagnosing placental malaria. J Clin Microbiol 37 :2992–2996.
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25
Mockenhaupt FP, Rong B, Günther M, Beck S, Till H, Kohne E, Thompson WN, Bienzle U, 2000. Anemia in pregnant Ghanaian women: importance of malaria, iron deficiency and haemoglobinopathies. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 945 :477–483.
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26
Geissler PW, Prince RJ, Levene M, Poda C, Beckely E, Mutemi W, Shulman E, 1999. Perceptions of soil eating and anemia among pregnant women on the Kenyan coast. Soc Sci (Kans) 488 :1069–1079.
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27
Geissler PW, Thiongo F, Michealsen KF, Friis H, 1998. Geography as a risk factor for geohelminths infections: alongitudinal study among Kenyan Primary School children. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 92 :7–11.
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28
Wong M, Bundy D, Golden M, 1991. The rate of ingestion of Ascaris lumbricoides and Trichiuris trichiura eggs in soil and its relationship to infection in two children’s homes in Jamaica. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 85 :89–91.
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30
Muhangi L, Woodburn P, Omara M, Omoding N, Kizito D, Mpairiwe H, Nabulime J, Ameke C, Morison LA, Elliot A, 2007. Associations between mild-to-moderate anaemia in pregnancy and helminth, malaria and HIV infection in Entebbe, Uganda. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 101 :899–907.
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Malaria and Intestinal Helminth Co-infection Among Pregnant Women in Ghana: Prevalence and Risk Factors
Nelly J. Yatich
Nelly J. Yatich
Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama; School of Medical Sciences, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana; Komfo Anokye Teaching Hospital, Kumasi, Ghana; Division of Infectious Diseases, School of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama; Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Immunology, Morehouse School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia; Department of Biochemistry, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana; Division of Preventive Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama; Department of Maternal and Child Health, School of Public Health, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama; College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, University of Georgia, Griffin, Georgia
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Jiang Yi
Jiang Yi
Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama; School of Medical Sciences, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana; Komfo Anokye Teaching Hospital, Kumasi, Ghana; Division of Infectious Diseases, School of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama; Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Immunology, Morehouse School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia; Department of Biochemistry, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana; Division of Preventive Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama; Department of Maternal and Child Health, School of Public Health, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama; College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, University of Georgia, Griffin, Georgia
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Tsiri Agbenyega
Tsiri Agbenyega
Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama; School of Medical Sciences, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana; Komfo Anokye Teaching Hospital, Kumasi, Ghana; Division of Infectious Diseases, School of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama; Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Immunology, Morehouse School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia; Department of Biochemistry, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana; Division of Preventive Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama; Department of Maternal and Child Health, School of Public Health, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama; College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, University of Georgia, Griffin, Georgia
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Archer Turpin
Archer Turpin
Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama; School of Medical Sciences, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana; Komfo Anokye Teaching Hospital, Kumasi, Ghana; Division of Infectious Diseases, School of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama; Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Immunology, Morehouse School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia; Department of Biochemistry, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana; Division of Preventive Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama; Department of Maternal and Child Health, School of Public Health, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama; College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, University of Georgia, Griffin, Georgia
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Julian C. Rayner
Julian C. Rayner
Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama; School of Medical Sciences, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana; Komfo Anokye Teaching Hospital, Kumasi, Ghana; Division of Infectious Diseases, School of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama; Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Immunology, Morehouse School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia; Department of Biochemistry, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana; Division of Preventive Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama; Department of Maternal and Child Health, School of Public Health, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama; College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, University of Georgia, Griffin, Georgia
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Jonathan K. Stiles
Jonathan K. Stiles
Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama; School of Medical Sciences, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana; Komfo Anokye Teaching Hospital, Kumasi, Ghana; Division of Infectious Diseases, School of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama; Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Immunology, Morehouse School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia; Department of Biochemistry, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana; Division of Preventive Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama; Department of Maternal and Child Health, School of Public Health, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama; College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, University of Georgia, Griffin, Georgia
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William O. Ellis
William O. Ellis
Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama; School of Medical Sciences, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana; Komfo Anokye Teaching Hospital, Kumasi, Ghana; Division of Infectious Diseases, School of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama; Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Immunology, Morehouse School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia; Department of Biochemistry, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana; Division of Preventive Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama; Department of Maternal and Child Health, School of Public Health, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama; College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, University of Georgia, Griffin, Georgia
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Ellen Funkhouser
Ellen Funkhouser
Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama; School of Medical Sciences, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana; Komfo Anokye Teaching Hospital, Kumasi, Ghana; Division of Infectious Diseases, School of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama; Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Immunology, Morehouse School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia; Department of Biochemistry, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana; Division of Preventive Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama; Department of Maternal and Child Health, School of Public Health, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama; College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, University of Georgia, Griffin, Georgia
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John E. Ehiri
John E. Ehiri
Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama; School of Medical Sciences, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana; Komfo Anokye Teaching Hospital, Kumasi, Ghana; Division of Infectious Diseases, School of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama; Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Immunology, Morehouse School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia; Department of Biochemistry, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana; Division of Preventive Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama; Department of Maternal and Child Health, School of Public Health, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama; College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, University of Georgia, Griffin, Georgia
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Jonathan H. Williams
Jonathan H. Williams
Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama; School of Medical Sciences, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana; Komfo Anokye Teaching Hospital, Kumasi, Ghana; Division of Infectious Diseases, School of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama; Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Immunology, Morehouse School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia; Department of Biochemistry, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana; Division of Preventive Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama; Department of Maternal and Child Health, School of Public Health, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama; College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, University of Georgia, Griffin, Georgia
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Pauline E. Jolly
Pauline E. Jolly
Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama; School of Medical Sciences, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana; Komfo Anokye Teaching Hospital, Kumasi, Ghana; Division of Infectious Diseases, School of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama; Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Immunology, Morehouse School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia; Department of Biochemistry, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana; Division of Preventive Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama; Department of Maternal and Child Health, School of Public Health, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama; College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, University of Georgia, Griffin, Georgia
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Both malaria and intestinal helminths are endemic in sub-Saharan Africa, and their co-infection occurs commonly. This cross-sectional study assessed the prevalence of malaria and intestinal helminth co-infection in a sample of > 700 pregnant women in Ghana and identified risk factors for co-infection. The prevalence of malaria infection, intestinal helminth infection(s), and co-infection was 36.3%, 25.7%, and 16.6%, respectively. Women with intestinal helminth infection(s) were 4.8 times more likely to have malaria infection. Young age, low income, being single, and being primigravid were each associated with increased odds of co-infection. These associations were present when assessed separately for primi- and multigravid women, but the strength of associations varied considerably for the two groups of women. Young age had the strongest association among both primigravid (odds ratio = 5.2) and multigravid (odds ratio = 3.2) women. This study shows relatively high prevalence rates of malaria, intestinal helminths, and co-infection in pregnant women in Ghana.
Author Notes
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1
de Silva NR, Brooker S, Hotez PJ, Montresor A, Engels D, Savioli L, 2003. Soil-transmitted helminth infections: updating the global picture. Trends Parasitol 19 :547–551.
-
2
Snow RW, Guerra CA, Noor AM, Myint HY, Hay SI, 2005. The global distribution of clinical episodes of Plasmodium falciparum malaria. Nature 434 :214–217.
-
3
Petney TN, Andrews RH, 1998. Multiparasites communities in animals and humans: frequency, structure and pathogenic significance. Int J Parasitol 28 :377–393.
-
4
Meeusen EN, Bischof RJ, Lee CS, 2001. Comparative T-cell responses during pregnancy in large animals and humans. Am J Reprod Immunol 46 :169–179.
-
5
Riley EM, Schneider G, Sambou I, Greenwood BM, 1999. Suppression of cell-mediated immune responses to malaria antigens in pregnant Gambian women. Am J Trop Med Hyg 40 :141–144.
-
6
Fievet N, Cot M, Chougnet C, Maubert B, Bickii J, Dubois B, Hesran J, Frobert Y, Migot F, Romain F, Verhave JP, Louis F, Deloron P, 1995. Malaria and pregnancy in Cameroonian primigravidae, humoral and cellular immune responses to Plasmodium falciparum blood-stage antigens. Am J Trop Med Hyg 53 :612–617.
-
7
Bouyou-Akotet MK, Ionete-Collard DE, Mabika-Manfoumbi M, Matsiegu PB, Mavoungou E, Kombila M, 2003. Prevalence of Plasmodium falciparum infection in pregnant women in Gabon. Malar J 2 :18.
-
8
Fried M, Duffy PE, 1996. Adherence of Plasmodium falciparum to chondroitin sulfate A in the human placenta. Science 272 :1502–1504.
-
9
Beeson JG, Rogerson SJ, Cooke BM, Reedr JC, Chai W, 2000. Adhesion of Plasmodium falciparum-infected erythrocytes to hyaluronic acid in placental malaria. Nat Med 6 :86–90.
-
10
Beck S, Mockenhaupt FP, Bienzle U, Eggelte TA, Thompson WN, Stark K, 2001. Multiplicity of Plasmodium infection in pregnancy. Am Soc Trop Med Hyg 65 :631–636.
-
11
Steketee RW, Nahlen BL, Parise ME, Menendez C, 2001. The burden of malaria in pregnancy in malaria-endemic areas. Am J Trop Med Hyg 64 :28–35.
-
12
Ndomugyenyi R, Kabatereine N, Olsen A, Magnusses P, 2002. Malaria and hookworm infections in relation to heamoglobin and serum ferritin levels in pregnancy in Masindi district, Western Uganda. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 102 :130–136.
-
13
Korbut R, Gryglewski RJ, 1993. Nitric oxide from polymorphonuclear leukocytes modulates red blood cell deformability in vitro. Eur J Pharmacol 234 :17–22.
-
14
Starzyk D, Korbut R, Gryglewski RJ, 1997. The role of nitric oxide in regulation of deformability of red blood cells in acute phase of endotoxaemia in rats. J Physiol Pharmacol 48 :731–735.
-
15
Dondorp AM, Angus BJ, Chotivanitch K, Silamut K, Ruangveerayuth R, Hardeman MR, Kager PA, Vreeken J, White NJ, 1999. Red blood cell deformability as a predictor of anemia in severe falciparum malaria. Am J Trop Med Hyg 60 :733–737.
-
16
Adegnika AA, Agnandji ST, Chai SK, Ramharter M, Breitling M, Kendjo E, Issifou S, Yazdanbakhsh M, Kombila M, Kremsner PG, 2007. Increased prevalence of intestinal helminth infection during pregnancy in a sub-Saharan African community. Wien Klin Wochenschr 119 :712–716.
-
17
Egwunyenga AO, Ajayi JA, Nmorsi OPG, Duhlinska-Popova DD, 2001. Plasmodium/intestinal Helminth Co-infections among pregnant Nigerian women. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 96 :1055–1059.
-
18
Ronald LA, Kenny SL, Klinkenberg E, Akoto AO, Boakye I, Barnish G, Donnelly M, 2006. Malaria and anemia among children in two communities of Kumasi, Ghana: a cross-sectional survey. Malar J 5 :105.
-
19
Roll Back Malaria, MEASURE Evaluation, World Health Organization, and United Nations Children’s Fund, 2004. Guidelines for Core Population Coverage Indicators for Roll Back Malaria: To Be Obtained From Household Surveys. Calverton, MD: MEASURE Evaluation.
-
20
Noedl H, Yinguen K, Laoboonchai A, Fukuda M, Sirichaisnthop J, Miller S, 2006. Sensitivity and specificity of an antigen detection ELISA for malaria diagnosis. Am J Trop Med Hyg 75 :1205–1208.
-
21
Garcia LS, 2001. Diagnostic Medical Parasitology. Washington, DC: ASM Press.
-
22
Hosmer D, Lemeshow S, 2001. Applied Logistic Regression in Wiley Series in Probability and Statistics. Second edition. New York: Wiley and Sons.
-
23
Marchesini P, Crawley J, 2004. Reducing the Burden of Malaria in Pregnancy. Geneva: Roll Back Malaria Department, World Health Organization.
-
24
Leke RF, Djokam RR, Mbu R, Leke RJ, Fogako J, Megnekou R, Metenou S, Sama G, Zhou Y, Cadigan T, Parra M, Taylor DW, 1999. Detection of the Plasmodium falciparum antigen histidine-rich protein 2 in blood of pregnant women: implications for diagnosing placental malaria. J Clin Microbiol 37 :2992–2996.
-
25
Mockenhaupt FP, Rong B, Günther M, Beck S, Till H, Kohne E, Thompson WN, Bienzle U, 2000. Anemia in pregnant Ghanaian women: importance of malaria, iron deficiency and haemoglobinopathies. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 945 :477–483.
-
26
Geissler PW, Prince RJ, Levene M, Poda C, Beckely E, Mutemi W, Shulman E, 1999. Perceptions of soil eating and anemia among pregnant women on the Kenyan coast. Soc Sci (Kans) 488 :1069–1079.
-
27
Geissler PW, Thiongo F, Michealsen KF, Friis H, 1998. Geography as a risk factor for geohelminths infections: alongitudinal study among Kenyan Primary School children. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 92 :7–11.
-
28
Wong M, Bundy D, Golden M, 1991. The rate of ingestion of Ascaris lumbricoides and Trichiuris trichiura eggs in soil and its relationship to infection in two children’s homes in Jamaica. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 85 :89–91.
-
29
Shapiri AE, Tukahebwa EM, Kasten J, Clarke SE, Magnussen P, Olase A, Kabatereine NB, Ndyomugyenyi R, Brroker S, 2005. Epidemiology of helminth infections and their relationship to clinical malaria in Southwest Uganda. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 99 :18–24.
-
30
Muhangi L, Woodburn P, Omara M, Omoding N, Kizito D, Mpairiwe H, Nabulime J, Ameke C, Morison LA, Elliot A, 2007. Associations between mild-to-moderate anaemia in pregnancy and helminth, malaria and HIV infection in Entebbe, Uganda. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 101 :899–907.
-
31
Hall A, 1981. Quantitative variability of nematode egg counts in faeces: a study among rural Kenyans. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 75 :682–687.
-
32
Nacher M, Singhasivanon P, Yimsamran S, Manibuynong W, Thanyavanich N, Wuthisen P, Looareeswan S, 2002. Intestinal helminth infections are associated with increased incidence of Plasmodium falciparum malaria in Thailand. J Parasitol 88 :55–58.
-
33
Nacher M, 2001. Malaria vaccine trials in a wormy world. Trends Parasitol 17 :563–565.
-
34
Bentwich Z, Maartens G, Torten D, Lal A, Lal R, 2000. Current infections and HIV pathogenesis. AIDS 14 :2071–2081.
-
35
Modjarrad K, Zulu I, Redder D, Njobvu L, Freedman O, Vermund S, 2005. Prevalence and predictors of intestinal helminth infections among human immunodeficiency virus type-1 infected adults in an urban African setting. Am J Trop Med Hyg 73 :777–782.
-
36
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