- INTRODUCTION
- METHODS
- RESULTS
- Maternal outcomes in HIV-positive and HIV-negative pregnant women.
- Birth outcomes in HIV-positive and HIV-negative pregnant women.
- Viral and immunologic parameters of HIV infection in pregnant women.
- Impact of sd-NVP administration on MTCT of HIV and development of resistance mutations.
- Mother-to-child transmission of HIV.
- DISCUSSION
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1
UNAIDS/WHO, 2008. Report on the Global AIDS Epidemic. Geneva: World Health Organization.
-
2
Coovadia H, 2004. Antiretroviral agents–how best to protect infants from HIV and save their mothers from AIDS. N Engl J Med 351 :289–292.
-
3
De Cock KM, Fowler MG, Mercier E, de Vincenzi I, Saba J, Hoff E, Alnwick DJ, Rogers M, Shaffer N, 2000. Prevention of mother-to-child HIV transmission in resource-poor countries: translating research into policy and practice. JAMA 283 :1175–1182.
-
4
Kourtis AP, Lee FK, Abrams EJ, Jamieson DJ, Bulterys M, 2006. Mother-to-child transmission of HIV-1: timing and implications for prevention. Lancet Infect Dis 6 :726–732.
-
5
Newell ML, Coovadia H, Cortina-Borja M, Rollins N, Gaillard P, Dabis F, 2004. Mortality of infected and uninfected infants born to HIV-infected mothers in Africa: a pooled analysis. Lancet 364 :1236–1243.
-
6
Chi BH, Wang L, Read JS, Sheriff M, Fiscus S, Brown ER, Taha TE, Valentine M, Goldenberg R, 2005. Timing of maternal and neonatal dosing of nevirapine and the risk of mother-to-child transmission of HIV-1: HIVNET 024. AIDS 19 :1857–1864.
-
7
World Health Organization, 2006. Antiretroviral Drugs for Treating Pregnant Women and Preventing HIV Infection in Infants: Towards Universal Access. Recommendations for a Public Health Approach. Geneva: World Health Organization.
-
8
Braddick MR, Kreiss JK, Embree JB, Datta P, Ndinya-Achola JO, Pamba H, Maitha G, Roberts PL, Quinn TC, Holmes KK, 1990. Impact of maternal HIV infection on obstetrical and early neonatal outcome. AIDS 4 :1001–1005.
-
9
Rollins NC, Coovadia HM, Bland RM, Coutsoudis A, Bennish ML, Patel D, Newell ML, 2007. Pregnancy outcomes in HIV-infected and uninfected women in rural and urban South Africa. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 44 :321–328.
-
10
Temmerman M, Plummer FA, Mirza NB, Ndinya-Achola JO, Wamola IA, Nagelkerke N, Brunham RC, Piot P, 1990. Infection with HIV as a risk factor for adverse obstetrical outcome. AIDS 4 :1087–1093.
-
11
van Eijk AM, Ayisi JG, Ter Kuile FO, Misore AO, Otieno JA, Kolczak MS, Kager PA, Steketee RW, Nahlen BL, 2002. Malaria and human immunodeficiency virus infection as risk factors for anemia in infants in Kisumu, western Kenya. Am J Trop Med Hyg 67 :44–53.
-
12
Brocklehurst P, French R, 1998. The association between maternal HIV infection and perinatal outcome: a systematic review of the literature and meta-analysis. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 105 :836–848.
-
13
Dreyfuss ML, Msamanga GI, Spiegelman D, Hunter DJ, Urassa EJ, Hertzmark E, Fawzi WW, 2001. Determinants of low birth weight among HIV-infected pregnant women in Tanzania. Am J Clin Nutr 74 :814–826.
-
14
Garrib A, Jaffar S, Knight S, Bradshaw D, Bennish ML, 2006. Rates and causes of child mortality in an area of high HIV prevalence in rural South Africa. Trop Med Int Health 11 :1841–1848.
-
15
Kuhn L, Kasonde P, Sinkala M, Kankasa C, Semrau K, Scott N, Tsai WY, Vermund SH, Aldrovandi GM, Thea DM, 2005. Does severity of HIV disease in HIV-infected mothers affect mortality and morbidity among their uninfected infants? Clin Infect Dis 41 :1654–1661.
-
16
Dabis F, Elenga N, Meda N, Leroy V, Viho I, Manigart O, Dequae-Merchadou L, Msellati P, Sombie I, 2001. 18-Month mortality and perinatal exposure to zidovudine in west Africa. AIDS 15 :771–779.
-
17
Taha TE, Kumwenda NI, Broadhead RL, Hoover DR, Graham SM, Van Der Hoven L, Markakis D, Liomba GN, Chiphangwi JD, Miotti PG, 1999. Mortality after the first year of life among human immunodeficiency virus type 1-infected and uninfected children. Pediatr Infect Dis J 18 :689–694.
-
18
Brahmbhatt H, Kigozi G, Wabwire-Mangen F, Serwadda D, Lutalo T, Nalugoda F, Sewankambo N, Kiduggavu M, Wawer M, Gray R, 2006. Mortality in HIV-infected and uninfected children of HIV-infected and uninfected mothers in rural Uganda. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 41 :504–508.
-
19
Alonso PL, Saúte F, Aponte JJ, 2001. Manhiça DSS, Mozambique. Population. Health and Survival at INDEPTH Sites 1 :189–195.
-
20
Menendez C, Bardaji A, Sigauque B, Romagosa C, Sanz S, Serra-Casas E, Macete E, Berenguera A, David C, Dobano C, Naniche D, Mayor A, Ordi J, Mandomando I, Aponte JJ, Mabunda S, Alonso PL, 2008. A randomized placebo-controlled trial of intermittent preventive treatment in pregnant women in the context of insecticide treated nets delivered through the antenatal clinic. PLoS One 3 :e1934.
-
21
Naniche D, Lahuerta M, Bardaji A, Sigauque B, Romagosa C, Berenguera A, Mandomando I, David C, Sanz S, Aponte J, Ordi J, Alonso P, Menendez C, 2008. Mother-to-child transmission of HIV-1: association with malaria prevention, anaemia and placental malaria. HIV Med 9 :757–764.
-
22
Shafer RW, Eisen JA, Merigan TC, Katzenstein DA, 1997. Sequence and drug susceptibility of subtype C reverse tran-scriptase from human immunodeficiency virus type 1 serocon-verters in Zimbabwe. J Virol 71 :5441–5448.
-
23
World Health Organization, 2006. Reproductive Health Indicators. Geneva: World Health Organization.
-
24
Eshleman SH, Guay LA, Mwatha A, Brown ER, Cunningham SP, Musoke P, Mmiro F, Jackson JB, 2004. Characterization of nevi-rapine resistance mutations in women with subtype A vs. D HIV-1 6–8 weeks after single-dose nevirapine (HIVNET 012). J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 35 :126–130.
-
25
Lahuerta M, Aparicio E, Bardaji A, Marco S, Sacarlal J, Mandomando I, Alonso P, Martinez MA, Menendez C, Naniche D, 2008. Rapid spread and genetic diversification of HIV type 1 subtype C in a rural area of southern Mozambique. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 24 :327–335.
-
26
Steketee RW, Nahlen BL, Parise ME, Menendez C, 2001. The burden of malaria in pregnancy in malaria-endemic areas. Am J Trop Med Hyg 64 :28–35.
-
27
Langston C, Lewis DE, Hammill HA, Popek EJ, Kozinetz CA, Kline MW, Hanson IC, Shearer WT, 1995. Excess intrauterine fetal demise associated with maternal human immunodeficiency virus infection. J Infect Dis 172 :1451–1460.
-
28
Ayisi JG, van Eijk AM, ter Kuile FO, Kolczak MS, Otieno JA, Misore AO, Kager PA, Steketee RW, Nahlen BL, 2003. The effect of dual infection with HIV and malaria on pregnancy outcome in western Kenya. AIDS 17 :585–594.
-
29
Menendez C, Fleming AF, Alonso PL, 2000. Malaria-related anaemia. Parasitol Today 16 :469–476.
-
30
Belperio PS, Rhew DC, 2004. Prevalence and outcomes of anemia in individuals with human immunodeficiency virus: a systematic review of the literature. Am J Med 116 (Suppl 7A):27S–43S.
-
31
Dairo MD, Lawoyin TO, Onadeko MO, Asekun-Olarinmoye EO, Adeniji AO, 2005. HIV as an additional risk factors for anaemia in pregnancy: evidence from primary care level in Ibadan, Southwestern Nigeria. Afr J Med Sci 34 :275–279.
-
32
Verhoeff FH, Le Cessie S, Kalanda BF, Kazembe PN, Broadhead RL, Brabin BJ, 2004. Post-neonatal infant mortality in Malawi: the importance of maternal health. Ann Trop Paediatr 24 :161–169.
-
33
McCormick MC, 1985. The contribution of low birth weight to infant mortality and childhood morbidity. N Engl J Med 312 :82–90.
-
34
Obimbo EM, Mbori-Ngacha DA, Ochieng JO, Richardson BA, Otieno PA, Bosire R, Farquhar C, Overbaugh J, John-Stewart GC, 2004. Predictors of early mortality in a cohort of human immunodeficiency virus type 1-infected African children. Pediatr Infect Dis J 23 :536–543.
-
35
Taha TE, Dallabetta GA, Canner JK, Chiphangwi JD, Liomba G, Hoover DR, Miotti PG, 1995. The effect of human immunodeficiency virus infection on birthweight, and infant and child mortality in urban Malawi. Int J Epidemiol 24 :1022–1029.
-
36
Steketee RW, 2003. Pregnancy, nutrition and parasitic diseases. J Nutr 133 :1661S–1667S.
-
37
Steketee RW, Wirima JJ, Bloland PB, Chilima B, Mermin JH, Chitsulo L, Breman JG, 1996. Impairment of a pregnant woman’s acquired ability to limit Plasmodium falciparum by infection with human immunodeficiency virus type-1. Am J Trop Med Hyg 55 :42–49.
-
38
Fawzi W, Msamanga G, Spiegelman D, Renjifo B, Bang H, Kapiga S, Coley J, Hertzmark E, Essex M, Hunter D, 2002. Transmission of HIV-1 through breastfeeding among women in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 31 :331–338.
-
39
Miotti PG, Taha TE, Kumwenda NI, Broadhead R, Mtimavalye LA, Van der Hoeven L, Chiphangwi JD, Liomba G, Biggar RJ, 1999. HIV transmission through breastfeeding: a study in Malawi. JAMA 282 :744–749.
-
40
Eshleman SH, Hoover DR, Chen S, Hudelson SE, Guay LA, Mwatha A, Fiscus SA, Mmiro F, Musoke P, Jackson JB, Kumwenda N, Taha T, 2005. Resistance after single-dose nevi-rapine prophylaxis emerges in a high proportion of Malawian newborns. AIDS 19 :2167–2169.
-
41
Eshleman SH, Hoover DR, Chen S, Hudelson SE, Guay LA, Mwatha A, Fiscus SA, Mmiro F, Musoke P, Jackson JB, Kumwenda N, Taha T, 2005. Nevirapine (NVP) resistance in women with HIV-1 subtype C, compared with subtypes A and D, after the administration of single-dose NVP. J Infect Dis 192 :30–36.
-
42
Delva W, Draper B, Temmerman M, 2006. Implementation of single-dose nevirapine for prevention of MTCT of HIV–lessons from Cape Town. S Afr Med J 96: 706, 708–709.
-
43
Perez F, Mukotekwa T, Miller A, Orne-Gliemann J, Glenshaw M, Chitsike I, Dabis F, 2004. Implementing a rural programme of prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV in Zimbabwe: first 18 months of experience. Trop Med Int Health 9 :774–783.
-
44
Quaghebeur A, Mutunga L, Mwanyumba F, Mandaliya K, Verhofstede C, Temmerman M, 2004. Low efficacy of nevirapine (HIVNET012) in preventing perinatal HIV-1 transmission in a real-life situation. AIDS 18 :1854–1856.
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Impact of Maternal Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection on Birth Outcomes and Infant Survival in Rural Mozambique
Denise Naniche
Denise Naniche
Barcelona Center for International Health Research, Hospital Clinic, Institut d’Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain; Centro de Investigaçâo em Saúde de Manhiça, Manhiça, Mozambique; Instituto Nacional de Saúde Maputo, Mozambique; Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade Eduardo Mondlane, Maputo, Mozambique
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Azucena Bardají
Azucena Bardají
Barcelona Center for International Health Research, Hospital Clinic, Institut d’Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain; Centro de Investigaçâo em Saúde de Manhiça, Manhiça, Mozambique; Instituto Nacional de Saúde Maputo, Mozambique; Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade Eduardo Mondlane, Maputo, Mozambique
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María Lahuerta
María Lahuerta
Barcelona Center for International Health Research, Hospital Clinic, Institut d’Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain; Centro de Investigaçâo em Saúde de Manhiça, Manhiça, Mozambique; Instituto Nacional de Saúde Maputo, Mozambique; Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade Eduardo Mondlane, Maputo, Mozambique
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Anna Berenguera
Anna Berenguera
Barcelona Center for International Health Research, Hospital Clinic, Institut d’Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain; Centro de Investigaçâo em Saúde de Manhiça, Manhiça, Mozambique; Instituto Nacional de Saúde Maputo, Mozambique; Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade Eduardo Mondlane, Maputo, Mozambique
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Inacio Mandomando
Inacio Mandomando
Barcelona Center for International Health Research, Hospital Clinic, Institut d’Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain; Centro de Investigaçâo em Saúde de Manhiça, Manhiça, Mozambique; Instituto Nacional de Saúde Maputo, Mozambique; Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade Eduardo Mondlane, Maputo, Mozambique
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Sergi Sanz
Sergi Sanz
Barcelona Center for International Health Research, Hospital Clinic, Institut d’Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain; Centro de Investigaçâo em Saúde de Manhiça, Manhiça, Mozambique; Instituto Nacional de Saúde Maputo, Mozambique; Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade Eduardo Mondlane, Maputo, Mozambique
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John J. Aponte
John J. Aponte
Barcelona Center for International Health Research, Hospital Clinic, Institut d’Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain; Centro de Investigaçâo em Saúde de Manhiça, Manhiça, Mozambique; Instituto Nacional de Saúde Maputo, Mozambique; Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade Eduardo Mondlane, Maputo, Mozambique
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Betuel Sigauque
Betuel Sigauque
Barcelona Center for International Health Research, Hospital Clinic, Institut d’Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain; Centro de Investigaçâo em Saúde de Manhiça, Manhiça, Mozambique; Instituto Nacional de Saúde Maputo, Mozambique; Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade Eduardo Mondlane, Maputo, Mozambique
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Pedro L. Alonso
Pedro L. Alonso
Barcelona Center for International Health Research, Hospital Clinic, Institut d’Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain; Centro de Investigaçâo em Saúde de Manhiça, Manhiça, Mozambique; Instituto Nacional de Saúde Maputo, Mozambique; Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade Eduardo Mondlane, Maputo, Mozambique
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Clara Menéndez
Clara Menéndez
Barcelona Center for International Health Research, Hospital Clinic, Institut d’Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain; Centro de Investigaçâo em Saúde de Manhiça, Manhiça, Mozambique; Instituto Nacional de Saúde Maputo, Mozambique; Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade Eduardo Mondlane, Maputo, Mozambique
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We assessed the effect of maternal human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection on birth outcomes and infant survival in rural Mozambique. Pregnant women attending the antenatal clinic were recruited. These women and their infants were followed-up for one year. Birth outcomes were assessed at delivery and infant HIV status was determined at 1 and 12 months of age. Women positive for HIV were more likely to have anemia at delivery than women negative for HIV (51.3% versus 35.4%; P < 0.001). Infants born to HIV-positive mothers had a significantly higher post-neonatal mortality rate than infants born to HIV-negative mothers (7.8% versus 1.9%; P < 0.001). The rate of transmission of HIV by breastfeeding during the first year of life was 15.1% (95% confidence interval = CI 7.6–22.4). Assessment of the impact of HIV infection on birth outcomes in rural Africa is essential for tailoring public health measures to reduce mother-to-child transmission of HIV and excess infant mortality.
Author Notes
- INTRODUCTION
- METHODS
- RESULTS
- Maternal outcomes in HIV-positive and HIV-negative pregnant women.
- Birth outcomes in HIV-positive and HIV-negative pregnant women.
- Viral and immunologic parameters of HIV infection in pregnant women.
- Impact of sd-NVP administration on MTCT of HIV and development of resistance mutations.
- Mother-to-child transmission of HIV.
- DISCUSSION
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1
UNAIDS/WHO, 2008. Report on the Global AIDS Epidemic. Geneva: World Health Organization.
-
2
Coovadia H, 2004. Antiretroviral agents–how best to protect infants from HIV and save their mothers from AIDS. N Engl J Med 351 :289–292.
-
3
De Cock KM, Fowler MG, Mercier E, de Vincenzi I, Saba J, Hoff E, Alnwick DJ, Rogers M, Shaffer N, 2000. Prevention of mother-to-child HIV transmission in resource-poor countries: translating research into policy and practice. JAMA 283 :1175–1182.
-
4
Kourtis AP, Lee FK, Abrams EJ, Jamieson DJ, Bulterys M, 2006. Mother-to-child transmission of HIV-1: timing and implications for prevention. Lancet Infect Dis 6 :726–732.
-
5
Newell ML, Coovadia H, Cortina-Borja M, Rollins N, Gaillard P, Dabis F, 2004. Mortality of infected and uninfected infants born to HIV-infected mothers in Africa: a pooled analysis. Lancet 364 :1236–1243.
-
6
Chi BH, Wang L, Read JS, Sheriff M, Fiscus S, Brown ER, Taha TE, Valentine M, Goldenberg R, 2005. Timing of maternal and neonatal dosing of nevirapine and the risk of mother-to-child transmission of HIV-1: HIVNET 024. AIDS 19 :1857–1864.
-
7
World Health Organization, 2006. Antiretroviral Drugs for Treating Pregnant Women and Preventing HIV Infection in Infants: Towards Universal Access. Recommendations for a Public Health Approach. Geneva: World Health Organization.
-
8
Braddick MR, Kreiss JK, Embree JB, Datta P, Ndinya-Achola JO, Pamba H, Maitha G, Roberts PL, Quinn TC, Holmes KK, 1990. Impact of maternal HIV infection on obstetrical and early neonatal outcome. AIDS 4 :1001–1005.
-
9
Rollins NC, Coovadia HM, Bland RM, Coutsoudis A, Bennish ML, Patel D, Newell ML, 2007. Pregnancy outcomes in HIV-infected and uninfected women in rural and urban South Africa. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 44 :321–328.
-
10
Temmerman M, Plummer FA, Mirza NB, Ndinya-Achola JO, Wamola IA, Nagelkerke N, Brunham RC, Piot P, 1990. Infection with HIV as a risk factor for adverse obstetrical outcome. AIDS 4 :1087–1093.
-
11
van Eijk AM, Ayisi JG, Ter Kuile FO, Misore AO, Otieno JA, Kolczak MS, Kager PA, Steketee RW, Nahlen BL, 2002. Malaria and human immunodeficiency virus infection as risk factors for anemia in infants in Kisumu, western Kenya. Am J Trop Med Hyg 67 :44–53.
-
12
Brocklehurst P, French R, 1998. The association between maternal HIV infection and perinatal outcome: a systematic review of the literature and meta-analysis. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 105 :836–848.
-
13
Dreyfuss ML, Msamanga GI, Spiegelman D, Hunter DJ, Urassa EJ, Hertzmark E, Fawzi WW, 2001. Determinants of low birth weight among HIV-infected pregnant women in Tanzania. Am J Clin Nutr 74 :814–826.
-
14
Garrib A, Jaffar S, Knight S, Bradshaw D, Bennish ML, 2006. Rates and causes of child mortality in an area of high HIV prevalence in rural South Africa. Trop Med Int Health 11 :1841–1848.
-
15
Kuhn L, Kasonde P, Sinkala M, Kankasa C, Semrau K, Scott N, Tsai WY, Vermund SH, Aldrovandi GM, Thea DM, 2005. Does severity of HIV disease in HIV-infected mothers affect mortality and morbidity among their uninfected infants? Clin Infect Dis 41 :1654–1661.
-
16
Dabis F, Elenga N, Meda N, Leroy V, Viho I, Manigart O, Dequae-Merchadou L, Msellati P, Sombie I, 2001. 18-Month mortality and perinatal exposure to zidovudine in west Africa. AIDS 15 :771–779.
-
17
Taha TE, Kumwenda NI, Broadhead RL, Hoover DR, Graham SM, Van Der Hoven L, Markakis D, Liomba GN, Chiphangwi JD, Miotti PG, 1999. Mortality after the first year of life among human immunodeficiency virus type 1-infected and uninfected children. Pediatr Infect Dis J 18 :689–694.
-
18
Brahmbhatt H, Kigozi G, Wabwire-Mangen F, Serwadda D, Lutalo T, Nalugoda F, Sewankambo N, Kiduggavu M, Wawer M, Gray R, 2006. Mortality in HIV-infected and uninfected children of HIV-infected and uninfected mothers in rural Uganda. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 41 :504–508.
-
19
Alonso PL, Saúte F, Aponte JJ, 2001. Manhiça DSS, Mozambique. Population. Health and Survival at INDEPTH Sites 1 :189–195.
-
20
Menendez C, Bardaji A, Sigauque B, Romagosa C, Sanz S, Serra-Casas E, Macete E, Berenguera A, David C, Dobano C, Naniche D, Mayor A, Ordi J, Mandomando I, Aponte JJ, Mabunda S, Alonso PL, 2008. A randomized placebo-controlled trial of intermittent preventive treatment in pregnant women in the context of insecticide treated nets delivered through the antenatal clinic. PLoS One 3 :e1934.
-
21
Naniche D, Lahuerta M, Bardaji A, Sigauque B, Romagosa C, Berenguera A, Mandomando I, David C, Sanz S, Aponte J, Ordi J, Alonso P, Menendez C, 2008. Mother-to-child transmission of HIV-1: association with malaria prevention, anaemia and placental malaria. HIV Med 9 :757–764.
-
22
Shafer RW, Eisen JA, Merigan TC, Katzenstein DA, 1997. Sequence and drug susceptibility of subtype C reverse tran-scriptase from human immunodeficiency virus type 1 serocon-verters in Zimbabwe. J Virol 71 :5441–5448.
-
23
World Health Organization, 2006. Reproductive Health Indicators. Geneva: World Health Organization.
-
24
Eshleman SH, Guay LA, Mwatha A, Brown ER, Cunningham SP, Musoke P, Mmiro F, Jackson JB, 2004. Characterization of nevi-rapine resistance mutations in women with subtype A vs. D HIV-1 6–8 weeks after single-dose nevirapine (HIVNET 012). J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 35 :126–130.
-
25
Lahuerta M, Aparicio E, Bardaji A, Marco S, Sacarlal J, Mandomando I, Alonso P, Martinez MA, Menendez C, Naniche D, 2008. Rapid spread and genetic diversification of HIV type 1 subtype C in a rural area of southern Mozambique. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 24 :327–335.
-
26
Steketee RW, Nahlen BL, Parise ME, Menendez C, 2001. The burden of malaria in pregnancy in malaria-endemic areas. Am J Trop Med Hyg 64 :28–35.
-
27
Langston C, Lewis DE, Hammill HA, Popek EJ, Kozinetz CA, Kline MW, Hanson IC, Shearer WT, 1995. Excess intrauterine fetal demise associated with maternal human immunodeficiency virus infection. J Infect Dis 172 :1451–1460.
-
28
Ayisi JG, van Eijk AM, ter Kuile FO, Kolczak MS, Otieno JA, Misore AO, Kager PA, Steketee RW, Nahlen BL, 2003. The effect of dual infection with HIV and malaria on pregnancy outcome in western Kenya. AIDS 17 :585–594.
-
29
Menendez C, Fleming AF, Alonso PL, 2000. Malaria-related anaemia. Parasitol Today 16 :469–476.
-
30
Belperio PS, Rhew DC, 2004. Prevalence and outcomes of anemia in individuals with human immunodeficiency virus: a systematic review of the literature. Am J Med 116 (Suppl 7A):27S–43S.
-
31
Dairo MD, Lawoyin TO, Onadeko MO, Asekun-Olarinmoye EO, Adeniji AO, 2005. HIV as an additional risk factors for anaemia in pregnancy: evidence from primary care level in Ibadan, Southwestern Nigeria. Afr J Med Sci 34 :275–279.
-
32
Verhoeff FH, Le Cessie S, Kalanda BF, Kazembe PN, Broadhead RL, Brabin BJ, 2004. Post-neonatal infant mortality in Malawi: the importance of maternal health. Ann Trop Paediatr 24 :161–169.
-
33
McCormick MC, 1985. The contribution of low birth weight to infant mortality and childhood morbidity. N Engl J Med 312 :82–90.
-
34
Obimbo EM, Mbori-Ngacha DA, Ochieng JO, Richardson BA, Otieno PA, Bosire R, Farquhar C, Overbaugh J, John-Stewart GC, 2004. Predictors of early mortality in a cohort of human immunodeficiency virus type 1-infected African children. Pediatr Infect Dis J 23 :536–543.
-
35
Taha TE, Dallabetta GA, Canner JK, Chiphangwi JD, Liomba G, Hoover DR, Miotti PG, 1995. The effect of human immunodeficiency virus infection on birthweight, and infant and child mortality in urban Malawi. Int J Epidemiol 24 :1022–1029.
-
36
Steketee RW, 2003. Pregnancy, nutrition and parasitic diseases. J Nutr 133 :1661S–1667S.
-
37
Steketee RW, Wirima JJ, Bloland PB, Chilima B, Mermin JH, Chitsulo L, Breman JG, 1996. Impairment of a pregnant woman’s acquired ability to limit Plasmodium falciparum by infection with human immunodeficiency virus type-1. Am J Trop Med Hyg 55 :42–49.
-
38
Fawzi W, Msamanga G, Spiegelman D, Renjifo B, Bang H, Kapiga S, Coley J, Hertzmark E, Essex M, Hunter D, 2002. Transmission of HIV-1 through breastfeeding among women in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 31 :331–338.
-
39
Miotti PG, Taha TE, Kumwenda NI, Broadhead R, Mtimavalye LA, Van der Hoeven L, Chiphangwi JD, Liomba G, Biggar RJ, 1999. HIV transmission through breastfeeding: a study in Malawi. JAMA 282 :744–749.
-
40
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