ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1
Shofield CJ, Janin J, Salvatella R, 2006. The future of Chagas disease control. Trends Parasitol 22 :583–588.
-
2
Dujardin JP, Schofield CJ, Tibayrenc M, 1998. Population structure of Andean Triatoma infestans: allozyme frequencies and their epidemiological relevance. Med Vet Entomol 12 :20–29.
-
3
Bargues MD, Klisiowicz DR, Panzera F, Noireau F, Marcilla A, Perez R, Rojas MG, O’Connor JE, Gonzalez-Candelas F, Galvao C, Jurberg J, Carcavallo RU, Dujardin JP, Mas-Coma S, 2006. Origin and phylogeography of the Chagas disease main vector Triatoma infestans based on nuclear rDNA sequences and genome size. Infect Genet Evol 6 :46–62.
-
4
Pinto Dias JC, 2000. Epidemiologia. Brener Z, Andrade Z, Barral-Netto M, eds. Trypanosoma cruzi e Doença de Chagas. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Guanabara Koogan, 48–74.
-
5
Barbosa PRB, 2006. The oral transmission of Chagas disease: an acute form of infection responsible for regional outbreaks. Int J Cardiol 112 :132–133.
-
6
Dias JCP, 2006. Notas sobre o Trypanosoma cruzi e suas características bio-ecológicas como agente de enfermidades transmitidas por alimentos. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop 39 :370–375.
-
7
Buscaglia CA, Di Noia JM, 2003. Trypanosoma cruzi clonal diversity and the epidemiology of Chagas disease. Microbes Infect 5 :419–427.
-
8
Stevens J, Noyes H, Gibson W, 1998. The evolution of Trypanosomes infecting humans and primates. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 93 :669–676.
-
9
Gaunt M, Miles M, 2000. The ecotopes and evolution of triatomine bugs (triatominae) and their associated trypanosomes. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 95 :557–565.
-
10
Briones MRS, Souto RP, Stolf BS, Zingales B, 1999. The evolution of two Trypanosoma cruzi subgroups inferred from rRNA genes can be correlated with the interchange of American mammalian faunas in the Cenozoic and has implications to pathogenicity and host specificity. Mol Biochem Parasitol 104 :219–232.
-
11
Yeo M, Acosta N, Llewellyn M, Sanchez H, Adamson S, Miles GA, Lopez E, Gonzalez N, Patterson JS, Gaunt MW, de Arias AR, Miles MA, 2005. Origins of Chagas disease: Didelphis species are natural hosts of Trypanosoma cruzi I and armadillos hosts of Trypanosoma cruzi II, including hybrids. Int J Parasitol 35 :225–233.
-
12
Aufderheide AC, Streitz W, Madden M, Streitz J, Buikstra J, Guhl F, Arriaza B, Renier C, Wittmers LE Jr, Fornaciari G, Allison M, 2004. A 9,000-year record of Chagas disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 101 :2034–2039.
-
13
Lima VS, Iniguez AM, Otsuki K, Ferreira LF, Araújo A, Vicente ACP, Jansen AM, 2008. Chagas disease by Trypanosoma cruzi lineage I in huntergatherer ancient population in Brazil. Emerg Infect Dis 14 :101–102.
-
14
de Freitas JM, Augusto-Pinto L, Pimenta JR, Bastos-Rodrigues L, Gonçalves VF, Teixeira SMR, Chiari E, Junqueira AC, Fernandes O, Macedo AM, Machado CR, Pena SD, 2006. Ancestral genomes, sex and the population structure of Trypanosoma cruzi.PLoS Pathog 2 :226–235.
-
15
Pedroso A, Cupolillo E, Zingales B, 2007. Trypanosoma cruzi: Exploring the nuclear genome of zymodeme 3 stocks by chromosome size polymorphism. Exp Parasitol 116 :71–76.
-
16
Herrera H, Lisboa CV, Pinho AP, Olifiers N, Bianchi FL, Rocha FL, Mourão GM, Jansen AM, 2008. The coati (Nasua nasua, Carnivora, Procyonidae) as a reservoir host for the main lineages of Trypanosoma cruzi in the Pantanal region, Brazil. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg (in press).
-
17
Camandaroba EL, Pinheiro Lima CM, Andrade SG, 2002. Oral transmission of Chagas disease: importance of Trypanosoma cruzi biodeme in the intragastric experimental infection. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo 44 :97–103.
-
18
Steindel M, Kramer Pacheco L, Scholl D, Soares M, de Moraes MH, Eger I, Kosmann C, Sincero TC, Stoco PH, Murta SM, de Carvalho-Pinto CJ, Grisard EC, 2008. Characterization of Trypanosoma cruzi isolated from humans, vectors, and animal reservoirs following an outbreak of acute human Chagas disease in Santa Catarina State, Brazil. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 60 :25–32.
-
19
Nery-Guimarães F, da Silva NN, Clausell DT, de Mello AL, Rapone T, Snell T, Rodrigues N, 1968. Um surto epidêmico de doença de Chagas de provável transmissão digestiva, ocorrido em Teutônia (Estrela–Rio Grande do Sul). Hospital (Rio J) 73 :73–110.
-
20
Deane MP, Lenzi HL, Jansen AM, 1984. Trypanosoma cruzi: vertebrate and invertebrate cycles in the same mammal host, the opossum Didelphis marsupialis.Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 79 :513–515.
-
21
Umezawa ES, Shikannai-Yasuda MA, Gruber A, Pereira-Chiccola VL, Zingales B, 1996. Trypanosoma cruzi defined antigens in the serological evaluation of an outbreak of acute Chagas’ disease in Brazil (Catolé do Rocha, Paraíba). Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 94 :395–398.
-
22
SVS–Secretaria de Vigilância em Saúde, 2005. Doença de Chagas Aguda no Município de Santana/Amapá. Brasília, Brazil: Secretaria de Vigilância em Saúde.
-
23
SESA–Núcleo de Epidemiologia, 2006. Doença de Chagas Aguda. Fortaleza, Brazil: Núcleo de Epidemiologia.
-
24
Bonvicino CR, Otazú IB, Vilela JF, 2005. Karyologic and molecular analysis of Proechimys Allen, 1899 (Rodentia, Echimyidae) from the Amazonian region. Arq Mus Nac 63 :191–200.
-
25
Camargo ME, 1966. Fluorescent antibody test for the serodiagnoses of American Trypanosomiasis: technical modification employing preserved culture forms of Trypanosoma cruzi in a slide test. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo 8 :227–234.
-
26
Herrera L, D’Andrea PS, Xavier SCC, Mangia RH, Fernandes O, Jansen AM, 2005. Trypanosoma cruzi infection in wild mammals of the National Park “Serra da Capivara”, and its surroundings (Piauí, Brazil), endemic for Chagas disease. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 99 :379–388.
-
27
Vaz VC, D’Andrea PS, Jansen AM, 2007. Effects of habitat fragmentation on wild mammal infection by Trypanosoma cruzi.Parasitology 134 :1–9.
-
28
Brasil MS-SVS, 2003. Manual de Vigilância e Controle da Leishmaniose Visceral: Normas e Manuais Técnicos (Série A). Brazil: Ministério da Saúde, Brasília, Distrito Federal.
-
29
Sambrook J, Fritsch EF, Maniatis T, 1989. Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual. New York: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press.
-
30
Fernandes O, Mangia RH, Lisboa CV, Pinho AP, Morel CM, Zingales B, Campbell DA, Jansen AM, 1999. The complexity of the complexity of the sylvatic cycle of Trypanosoma cruzi in Rio de Janeiro State revealed by non-transcribed spacer of the mini exon gene. Parasitology 118 :161–166.
-
31
Barretto MP, Ribeiro RD, Belda Neto FM, 1978. Estudos sobre reservatórios e vectores silvestres do Trypanosoma cruzi. LXVIII: Infecção de mamíferos pela via oral. Rev Bras Biol 38 :455–459.
-
32
Calvo Mendez ML, Nogueda Torres B, Alejandre Aguilar R, 1992. The oral route: an access port for Trypanosoma cruzi.Rev Latinoam Microbiol 34 :39–42.
-
33
Hoft DF, Farrar PL, Kratz-Owens K, Shaffer D, 1996. Gastric invasion by Trypanosoma cruzi and induction of protective mucosal immune responses. Inf Immun 64 :3800–3810.
-
34
Cortez M, Silva MR, Neira I, Ferreira D, Sasso GR, Luquetti AO, Rassi A, Yoshida N, 2006. Trypanosoma cruzi surface molecule gp90 down regulates invasion of gastric mucosal epithelium in orally infected mice. Microbes Infect 8 :36–44.
-
35
Reinhard KJ, Ambler JR, Szuter CR, 2007. Hunter-gatherer use of small animal food resources: coprolite evidence. Int J Osteoarchaeol 17 :416–428.
-
36
Ostfeld RS, Keesing F, 2000. The function of biodiversity in the ecology of vector-borne zoonotic diseases. Can J Zool 78 :2061–2078.
-
37
McCallum H, Dobson A, 2002. Disease, habitat fragmentation and conservation. Proc R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 269 :2041–2049.
-
38
Deem SL, Karesh WB, Weisman W, 2001. Putting theory into practice: wildlife health in conservation. Conserv Biol 15 :1224–1233.
-
39
Patz JA, Graczyk TK, Geller N, Vittor AY, 2000. Effects of environmental change on emerging parasitic diseases. Int J Parasitol 30 :1395–1405.
-
40
Teixeira AR, Monteiro PS, Rebelo JM, Arganaraz ER, Vieira D, Lauria-Pires L, Nascimento R, Vexenat CA, Silva AR, Ault SK, Costa JM, 2001. Emerging Chagas disease: trophic network and cycle of transmission of Trypanosoma cruzi from palm trees in the Amazon. Emerg Infect Dis 1 :100–112.
-
41
Schmidt KA, Ostfeld RS, 2001. Biodiversity and the dilution effect in disease ecology. Ecology 82 :609–619.
-
42
Keesing F, Holt RD, Ostfeld RS, 2006. Effects of species diversity on disease risk. Ecol Lett 9 :485–498.
-
43
Chaves LF, Hernandez MJ, Dobson AP, Pascual M, 2007. Sources and sinks: revisiting the criteria for identifying reservoirs for American cutaneous leishmaniasis. Trends Parasitol 23 :311–316.
-
44
Dobson A, Cattadori I, Holt RD, Ostfeld RS, Keesing F, Krichbaum K, Rohr JR, Perkins SE, Hudson PJ, 2006. Sacred cows and sympathetic squirrels: The importance of biological diversity to human health. PLoS Med 3 :e231.
-
45
Austad SN, 1988. The adaptable opossum. Sci Am 258 :98–104.
-
46
Pinto CM, Ocaña-Mayorga S, Lascano MS, Grijalva MJ, 2006. Infection by trypanosomes in marsupials and rodents associated with human dwellings in Ecuador. J Parasitol 92 :1251–1255.
-
47
Ostfeld RS, Keesing F, 2000. Biodiversity and disease risk: the case of Lyme disease. Conserv Biol 14 :722–728.
-
48
Chaves LF, Hernandez MJ, 2004. Mathematical modeling of American cutaneous leishmaniasis: incidental hosts and threshold conditions for infection persistence. Acta Trop 92 :245–252.
-
49
Kilpatrick AM, Kramer LD, Jones MJ, Marra PP, Daszak P, 2006. West Nile virus epidemics in North America are driven by shifts in mosquito feeding behavior. PLoS Biol 4 :e82.
-
50
Olifiers N, Gentile R, Fiszon JT, 2005. Relation between small-mammal species composition and anthropic variables in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest. Braz J Biol 65 :495–501.
-
51
Urdaneta-Morales S, Nironi I, 1996. Trypanosoma cruzi in the anal glands of urban opossums. I–Isolation and experimental infections. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 91 :399–403.
-
52
Roque ALR, D’Andrea PS, Andrade GB, Jansen AM, 2005. Trypanosoma cruzi: distinct patterns of infection in the sibling caviomorph rodent species Thrichomys apereoides laurentius and Thrichomys pachyurus (Rodentia, Echimyidae). Exp Parasitol 111 :37–46.
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Trypanosoma cruzi Transmission Cycle Among Wild and Domestic Mammals in Three Areas of Orally Transmitted Chagas Disease Outbreaks
André Luiz R. Roque
André Luiz R. Roque
Laboratory of Tripanosomatid Biology, Oswaldo Cruz Institute, FIOCRUZ, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; Laboratory of Leishmaniasis Research, Oswaldo Cruz Institute, FIOCRUZ, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; Laboratory of Biology and Parasitology of Wild Reservoir Mammals, Oswaldo Cruz Institute, FIOCRUZ, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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Samanta C. C. Xavier
Samanta C. C. Xavier
Laboratory of Tripanosomatid Biology, Oswaldo Cruz Institute, FIOCRUZ, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; Laboratory of Leishmaniasis Research, Oswaldo Cruz Institute, FIOCRUZ, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; Laboratory of Biology and Parasitology of Wild Reservoir Mammals, Oswaldo Cruz Institute, FIOCRUZ, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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Marconny G. da Rocha
Marconny G. da Rocha
Laboratory of Tripanosomatid Biology, Oswaldo Cruz Institute, FIOCRUZ, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; Laboratory of Leishmaniasis Research, Oswaldo Cruz Institute, FIOCRUZ, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; Laboratory of Biology and Parasitology of Wild Reservoir Mammals, Oswaldo Cruz Institute, FIOCRUZ, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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Ana Cláudia M. Duarte
Ana Cláudia M. Duarte
Laboratory of Tripanosomatid Biology, Oswaldo Cruz Institute, FIOCRUZ, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; Laboratory of Leishmaniasis Research, Oswaldo Cruz Institute, FIOCRUZ, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; Laboratory of Biology and Parasitology of Wild Reservoir Mammals, Oswaldo Cruz Institute, FIOCRUZ, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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Paulo S. D’Andrea
Paulo S. D’Andrea
Laboratory of Tripanosomatid Biology, Oswaldo Cruz Institute, FIOCRUZ, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; Laboratory of Leishmaniasis Research, Oswaldo Cruz Institute, FIOCRUZ, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; Laboratory of Biology and Parasitology of Wild Reservoir Mammals, Oswaldo Cruz Institute, FIOCRUZ, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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Ana M. Jansen
Ana M. Jansen
Laboratory of Tripanosomatid Biology, Oswaldo Cruz Institute, FIOCRUZ, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; Laboratory of Leishmaniasis Research, Oswaldo Cruz Institute, FIOCRUZ, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; Laboratory of Biology and Parasitology of Wild Reservoir Mammals, Oswaldo Cruz Institute, FIOCRUZ, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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We report Trypanosoma cruzi infection in wild and domestic mammals from three orally acquired Chagas disease outbreak areas in Brazil. Cachoeiro do Arari (Pará) displayed a panzootic scenery (positive mammals in all ecologic strata), and human cases were probably the consequence of their exposure within the sylvatic T. cruzi transmission cycle. In Navegantes (Santa Catarina), Didelphis spp. was the main reservoir host, given that 93% were infected. In Redenção (Ceará), Monodelphis domestica and Thrichomys laurentius were also important for parasite maintenance. TCI was present in the three studied areas. Additionally, Z3 was detected in an armadillo from Pará and TCII in a triatomine from Navegantes. Domestic animals showed a high seroprevalence and should be considered sentinels in surveillance programs. The importance of a reduction in wild mammalian fauna diversity and selection of suitable T. cruzi reservoir hosts are discussed as risk factors for the re-emergence of Chagas disease.
Author Notes
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1
Shofield CJ, Janin J, Salvatella R, 2006. The future of Chagas disease control. Trends Parasitol 22 :583–588.
-
2
Dujardin JP, Schofield CJ, Tibayrenc M, 1998. Population structure of Andean Triatoma infestans: allozyme frequencies and their epidemiological relevance. Med Vet Entomol 12 :20–29.
-
3
Bargues MD, Klisiowicz DR, Panzera F, Noireau F, Marcilla A, Perez R, Rojas MG, O’Connor JE, Gonzalez-Candelas F, Galvao C, Jurberg J, Carcavallo RU, Dujardin JP, Mas-Coma S, 2006. Origin and phylogeography of the Chagas disease main vector Triatoma infestans based on nuclear rDNA sequences and genome size. Infect Genet Evol 6 :46–62.
-
4
Pinto Dias JC, 2000. Epidemiologia. Brener Z, Andrade Z, Barral-Netto M, eds. Trypanosoma cruzi e Doença de Chagas. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Guanabara Koogan, 48–74.
-
5
Barbosa PRB, 2006. The oral transmission of Chagas disease: an acute form of infection responsible for regional outbreaks. Int J Cardiol 112 :132–133.
-
6
Dias JCP, 2006. Notas sobre o Trypanosoma cruzi e suas características bio-ecológicas como agente de enfermidades transmitidas por alimentos. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop 39 :370–375.
-
7
Buscaglia CA, Di Noia JM, 2003. Trypanosoma cruzi clonal diversity and the epidemiology of Chagas disease. Microbes Infect 5 :419–427.
-
8
Stevens J, Noyes H, Gibson W, 1998. The evolution of Trypanosomes infecting humans and primates. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 93 :669–676.
-
9
Gaunt M, Miles M, 2000. The ecotopes and evolution of triatomine bugs (triatominae) and their associated trypanosomes. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 95 :557–565.
-
10
Briones MRS, Souto RP, Stolf BS, Zingales B, 1999. The evolution of two Trypanosoma cruzi subgroups inferred from rRNA genes can be correlated with the interchange of American mammalian faunas in the Cenozoic and has implications to pathogenicity and host specificity. Mol Biochem Parasitol 104 :219–232.
-
11
Yeo M, Acosta N, Llewellyn M, Sanchez H, Adamson S, Miles GA, Lopez E, Gonzalez N, Patterson JS, Gaunt MW, de Arias AR, Miles MA, 2005. Origins of Chagas disease: Didelphis species are natural hosts of Trypanosoma cruzi I and armadillos hosts of Trypanosoma cruzi II, including hybrids. Int J Parasitol 35 :225–233.
-
12
Aufderheide AC, Streitz W, Madden M, Streitz J, Buikstra J, Guhl F, Arriaza B, Renier C, Wittmers LE Jr, Fornaciari G, Allison M, 2004. A 9,000-year record of Chagas disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 101 :2034–2039.
-
13
Lima VS, Iniguez AM, Otsuki K, Ferreira LF, Araújo A, Vicente ACP, Jansen AM, 2008. Chagas disease by Trypanosoma cruzi lineage I in huntergatherer ancient population in Brazil. Emerg Infect Dis 14 :101–102.
-
14
de Freitas JM, Augusto-Pinto L, Pimenta JR, Bastos-Rodrigues L, Gonçalves VF, Teixeira SMR, Chiari E, Junqueira AC, Fernandes O, Macedo AM, Machado CR, Pena SD, 2006. Ancestral genomes, sex and the population structure of Trypanosoma cruzi.PLoS Pathog 2 :226–235.
-
15
Pedroso A, Cupolillo E, Zingales B, 2007. Trypanosoma cruzi: Exploring the nuclear genome of zymodeme 3 stocks by chromosome size polymorphism. Exp Parasitol 116 :71–76.
-
16
Herrera H, Lisboa CV, Pinho AP, Olifiers N, Bianchi FL, Rocha FL, Mourão GM, Jansen AM, 2008. The coati (Nasua nasua, Carnivora, Procyonidae) as a reservoir host for the main lineages of Trypanosoma cruzi in the Pantanal region, Brazil. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg (in press).
-
17
Camandaroba EL, Pinheiro Lima CM, Andrade SG, 2002. Oral transmission of Chagas disease: importance of Trypanosoma cruzi biodeme in the intragastric experimental infection. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo 44 :97–103.
-
18
Steindel M, Kramer Pacheco L, Scholl D, Soares M, de Moraes MH, Eger I, Kosmann C, Sincero TC, Stoco PH, Murta SM, de Carvalho-Pinto CJ, Grisard EC, 2008. Characterization of Trypanosoma cruzi isolated from humans, vectors, and animal reservoirs following an outbreak of acute human Chagas disease in Santa Catarina State, Brazil. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 60 :25–32.
-
19
Nery-Guimarães F, da Silva NN, Clausell DT, de Mello AL, Rapone T, Snell T, Rodrigues N, 1968. Um surto epidêmico de doença de Chagas de provável transmissão digestiva, ocorrido em Teutônia (Estrela–Rio Grande do Sul). Hospital (Rio J) 73 :73–110.
-
20
Deane MP, Lenzi HL, Jansen AM, 1984. Trypanosoma cruzi: vertebrate and invertebrate cycles in the same mammal host, the opossum Didelphis marsupialis.Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 79 :513–515.
-
21
Umezawa ES, Shikannai-Yasuda MA, Gruber A, Pereira-Chiccola VL, Zingales B, 1996. Trypanosoma cruzi defined antigens in the serological evaluation of an outbreak of acute Chagas’ disease in Brazil (Catolé do Rocha, Paraíba). Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 94 :395–398.
-
22
SVS–Secretaria de Vigilância em Saúde, 2005. Doença de Chagas Aguda no Município de Santana/Amapá. Brasília, Brazil: Secretaria de Vigilância em Saúde.
-
23
SESA–Núcleo de Epidemiologia, 2006. Doença de Chagas Aguda. Fortaleza, Brazil: Núcleo de Epidemiologia.
-
24
Bonvicino CR, Otazú IB, Vilela JF, 2005. Karyologic and molecular analysis of Proechimys Allen, 1899 (Rodentia, Echimyidae) from the Amazonian region. Arq Mus Nac 63 :191–200.
-
25
Camargo ME, 1966. Fluorescent antibody test for the serodiagnoses of American Trypanosomiasis: technical modification employing preserved culture forms of Trypanosoma cruzi in a slide test. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo 8 :227–234.
-
26
Herrera L, D’Andrea PS, Xavier SCC, Mangia RH, Fernandes O, Jansen AM, 2005. Trypanosoma cruzi infection in wild mammals of the National Park “Serra da Capivara”, and its surroundings (Piauí, Brazil), endemic for Chagas disease. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 99 :379–388.
-
27
Vaz VC, D’Andrea PS, Jansen AM, 2007. Effects of habitat fragmentation on wild mammal infection by Trypanosoma cruzi.Parasitology 134 :1–9.
-
28
Brasil MS-SVS, 2003. Manual de Vigilância e Controle da Leishmaniose Visceral: Normas e Manuais Técnicos (Série A). Brazil: Ministério da Saúde, Brasília, Distrito Federal.
-
29
Sambrook J, Fritsch EF, Maniatis T, 1989. Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual. New York: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press.
-
30
Fernandes O, Mangia RH, Lisboa CV, Pinho AP, Morel CM, Zingales B, Campbell DA, Jansen AM, 1999. The complexity of the complexity of the sylvatic cycle of Trypanosoma cruzi in Rio de Janeiro State revealed by non-transcribed spacer of the mini exon gene. Parasitology 118 :161–166.
-
31
Barretto MP, Ribeiro RD, Belda Neto FM, 1978. Estudos sobre reservatórios e vectores silvestres do Trypanosoma cruzi. LXVIII: Infecção de mamíferos pela via oral. Rev Bras Biol 38 :455–459.
-
32
Calvo Mendez ML, Nogueda Torres B, Alejandre Aguilar R, 1992. The oral route: an access port for Trypanosoma cruzi.Rev Latinoam Microbiol 34 :39–42.
-
33
Hoft DF, Farrar PL, Kratz-Owens K, Shaffer D, 1996. Gastric invasion by Trypanosoma cruzi and induction of protective mucosal immune responses. Inf Immun 64 :3800–3810.
-
34
Cortez M, Silva MR, Neira I, Ferreira D, Sasso GR, Luquetti AO, Rassi A, Yoshida N, 2006. Trypanosoma cruzi surface molecule gp90 down regulates invasion of gastric mucosal epithelium in orally infected mice. Microbes Infect 8 :36–44.
-
35
Reinhard KJ, Ambler JR, Szuter CR, 2007. Hunter-gatherer use of small animal food resources: coprolite evidence. Int J Osteoarchaeol 17 :416–428.
-
36
Ostfeld RS, Keesing F, 2000. The function of biodiversity in the ecology of vector-borne zoonotic diseases. Can J Zool 78 :2061–2078.
-
37
McCallum H, Dobson A, 2002. Disease, habitat fragmentation and conservation. Proc R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 269 :2041–2049.
-
38
Deem SL, Karesh WB, Weisman W, 2001. Putting theory into practice: wildlife health in conservation. Conserv Biol 15 :1224–1233.
-
39
Patz JA, Graczyk TK, Geller N, Vittor AY, 2000. Effects of environmental change on emerging parasitic diseases. Int J Parasitol 30 :1395–1405.
-
40
Teixeira AR, Monteiro PS, Rebelo JM, Arganaraz ER, Vieira D, Lauria-Pires L, Nascimento R, Vexenat CA, Silva AR, Ault SK, Costa JM, 2001. Emerging Chagas disease: trophic network and cycle of transmission of Trypanosoma cruzi from palm trees in the Amazon. Emerg Infect Dis 1 :100–112.
-
41
Schmidt KA, Ostfeld RS, 2001. Biodiversity and the dilution effect in disease ecology. Ecology 82 :609–619.
-
42
Keesing F, Holt RD, Ostfeld RS, 2006. Effects of species diversity on disease risk. Ecol Lett 9 :485–498.
-
43
Chaves LF, Hernandez MJ, Dobson AP, Pascual M, 2007. Sources and sinks: revisiting the criteria for identifying reservoirs for American cutaneous leishmaniasis. Trends Parasitol 23 :311–316.
-
44
Dobson A, Cattadori I, Holt RD, Ostfeld RS, Keesing F, Krichbaum K, Rohr JR, Perkins SE, Hudson PJ, 2006. Sacred cows and sympathetic squirrels: The importance of biological diversity to human health. PLoS Med 3 :e231.
-
45
Austad SN, 1988. The adaptable opossum. Sci Am 258 :98–104.
-
46
Pinto CM, Ocaña-Mayorga S, Lascano MS, Grijalva MJ, 2006. Infection by trypanosomes in marsupials and rodents associated with human dwellings in Ecuador. J Parasitol 92 :1251–1255.
-
47
Ostfeld RS, Keesing F, 2000. Biodiversity and disease risk: the case of Lyme disease. Conserv Biol 14 :722–728.
-
48
Chaves LF, Hernandez MJ, 2004. Mathematical modeling of American cutaneous leishmaniasis: incidental hosts and threshold conditions for infection persistence. Acta Trop 92 :245–252.
-
49
Kilpatrick AM, Kramer LD, Jones MJ, Marra PP, Daszak P, 2006. West Nile virus epidemics in North America are driven by shifts in mosquito feeding behavior. PLoS Biol 4 :e82.
-
50
Olifiers N, Gentile R, Fiszon JT, 2005. Relation between small-mammal species composition and anthropic variables in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest. Braz J Biol 65 :495–501.
-
51
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