ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
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EndNote
-
1
World Health Organization and UNICEF, 2006. Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation. Available at: http://www.wssinfo.org/en/233_wat_africaS.html. Accessed July 16, 2008.
-
2
Statistics South Africa, 2006. General Household Survey. Statistical release P0318. Available at: http://www.statssa.gov.za. Accessed July 16, 2008.
-
3
Bradshaw D, Groenewald P, Laubscher R, Nannan N, Nojilana B, Norman R, Pieterse D, Schneider M, Bourne D, Timæus I, Dorrington R, Johnson L, 2003. Initial burden of disease estimates for South Africa 2000. S Afr Med J 93 :682–688.
-
4
Kosek M, Bern C, Guerrant RL, 2003. The global burden of diarrhoea disease as estimated from studies published between 1992 and 2000. Bull World Health Organ 81 :197–204.
-
5
Nath KJ, Bloomfield SF, Jones M, 2006. Household Water Storage, Handling and Point-of-Use Treatment. A Review Commissioned by the International Scientific Forum on Home Hygiene. Available at: http://www.ifh-homehygiene.org. Accessed July 16, 2008.
-
6
Clasen T, Cairncross S, 2004. Household water treatment: refining the dominant paradigm. Trop Med Int Health 9 :187–191.
-
7
Clasen T, Brown J, Simon C, 2006. Preventing diarrhoea with household ceramic filters: assessment of a pilot project in Bolivia. Int J Environ Health Res 16 :231–239.
-
8
Fewtrell L, Kaufman RB, Kay D, Enanoria W, Haller L, Colford JM Jr, 2005. Water sanitation, and hygiene interventions to reduce diarrhoea in less developed countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet 5 :42–52.
-
9
Sobsey MD, 2000. Managing Water in the Home: Accelerated Health Gains From Improved Water Supply. Available at: http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/wsh0207/en/. Accessed July 16, 2008.
-
10
Clasen T, Parra GG, Boison S, Collin S, 2005. Household-based ceramic water filters for the prevention of diarrhea: a randomized, controlled trail of a pilot program in Columbia. Am J Med Hyg 73 :790–795.
-
11
Clasen T, Brown J, Suntura O, Collin S, 2004. Reducing diarrhoea through household-based ceramic filtration of drinking water: a randomized, controlled trial in Bolivia. Am J Trop Med Hyg 70 :651–657.
-
12
Brown J, Sobsey M, 2006. Post-project appraisal of large-scale home water treatment and storage: lessons from Cambodia, 2002–2006. IWA World Water Congress and Exhibition, 10–14 September, 2006, Beijing International Convention Centre, Beijing, China.
-
13
Sobsey MD, Handzel T, Venczel L, 2003. Chlorination and safe storage of household drinking water in developing countries to reduce waterborne disease. Water Sci Technol 47 :221–228.
-
14
Semenza J, Roberts L, Henderson A, Bogan J, Rubin CH, 1998. Water distribution system and diarrheal disease transmission: a case study in Uzbekistan. Am J Trop Med Hyg 59 :941–946.
-
15
Crump JA, Okoth GO, Slutsker L, Ogaja DO, Keswick GH, Luby SP, 2004. Effect of point-of-use disinfection, flocculation and combined flocculation-disinfection on drinking water quality in western Kenya. J Appl Microbiol 97 :225–231.
-
16
Quick RE, Kimura A, Thevos A, Tembo M, Shamputa I, Hutwagner L, Mintz E, 2002. Diarrhea prevention through household-level water disinfection and safe storage in Zambia. Am J Trop Med Hyg 66 :584–589.
-
17
Reller ME, Mendoza CE, Lopez MB, Alvarez M, Hoekstra RM, Olson CA, Baier KG, Keswick BH, Luby SP, 2003. A randomized control trial of house-hold based flocculant-disinfectant drinking water treatment for diarrhea prevention in rural Guatamala. Am J Trop Hyg 69 :411–419.
-
18
Rose A, Roy S, Abraham V, Holmgren G, George K, Balarai V, Abraham S, Mulivil J, Joseph A, 2006. Solar disinfection of water for diarrhoeal prevention in southern India. Arch Dis Child 91 :139–141.
-
19
Conroy RM, Elmore-Meegan M, Joyce T, McGuigen KG, Barnes J, 1996. Solar disinfection of drinking water and diarrhoea in Maasai children: a controlled field trial. Lancet 348 :1695–1697.
-
20
Conroy RM, Meegan ME, Joyce T, McGuigen KG, Barnes J, 1999. Solar disinfection of water reduce diarrhoeal disease: an update. Arch Dis Child 81 :337–338.
-
21
Kottloff KL, Winickoff JP, Ivanoff B, Clemens JD, Swerdlow DL, Sansonetti PJ, Adak GK, Levine MM, 1999. Global burden of Shigella infections: implications for vaccine development and implementation of control strategies. Bull World Health Organ 77 :651–666.
-
22
Von Seidlein L, Kim DR, Ali M, Lee H, Wang XY, Thiem VD, Canh DG, Chaicumpa W, Agtini MD, Hossain A, Bhutta ZA, Mason C, Sethabur O, Talukder K, Nair GB, Deen JL, Kotloff K, Clemens J, 2006. A multicentre study of Shigella diarrhoea in six Asian countries: disease burden, clinical manifestations, and microbiology. PLoS Med 3 :e353.
-
23
Chompook P, Samosornsuk S, von Seidlein L, Jitsanguansuk S, Sirima N, Sudjai S, Mangjit P, Kim DR, Wheeler JG, Todd J, Lee H, Ali M, Clemens J, Tapchaisri P, Chaicumpa W, 2005. Estimation of the burden of shigellosis in Thailand: 26-month population-based surveillance study. Bull World Health Organ 83 :739–746.
-
24
Wang X, Du L, von Seidlein L, Xu Z, Zhang Y, Hao Z, Han O, Ma J, Lee H, Ali M, Han C, Xing Z, Chen J, Clemens J, 2005. Occurrence of shigellosis in the young and the elderly in rural China: results of a 12-month population-based surveillance study. J Am Trop Med Hyg 73 :416–422.
-
25
WHO, 2005. Guidelines for Control of Shigellosis Including Epidemics Due to Shigella dysenteriae Type 1. Available at: http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2005/9241592330.pdf. Accessed July 16, 2008.
-
26
Gundry SW, Wright JA, 2004. “Smiley” diaries: a simple way of recording diarrhoea episodes. Waterlines 22 :13.
-
27
Actuarial Society of South Africa, 2000. AIDS and Demographic Model. Available at: http://www.assa.org.za. Accessed July 16, 2008.
-
28
Statistics South Africa, 2004. Census 2001. Pretoria: Statistics South Africa.
-
29
Central Statistical Office, 2003. Census 2002: Preliminary Results Summary. Harare: Government of Zimbabwe.
-
30
Central Statistical Office, 1994. Census 1992 Provincial Profile: Masvingo. Harare: Government of Zimbabwe.
-
31
Gundry SW, Wright JA, Conroy R, du Preez M, Genthe B, Moyo S, Mutisi C, Ndamba J, Potgieter N, 2006. Contamination of drinking water between source and point-of-use in rural households of South Africa and Zimbabwe: implications for monitoring the Millennium Development Goal for water. Water Pract Technol 1.
-
32
Baqui AH, Black RE, Yunus M, Hoque AR, Chowdhury HR, Sack RB, 1991. Methodological issues in diarrhoeal diseases epidemiology: definition of diarrhoeal episodes. Int J Epidemiol 20 :1057–1063.
-
33
Statistics South Africa, 2003. Census 2001: Census in Brief. Pretoria: Statistics South Africa.
-
34
Clasen T, Boisson S, 2006. Household-based ceramic water filters for the treatment of drinking water in disaster response: an assessment of a pilot programme in the Dominican Republic. Water Pract Technol 1.
-
35
Ronsmans C, Bennish ML, Wierzba T, 1988. Diagnosis and management of dysentery by community health workers. Lancet 3 :552–555.
-
36
Quick RE, Venczel LV, Mintz ED, Soleto L, Aparicio J, Gironaz M, Hutwagner L, Greene K, Bopp C, Maloney K, Chavez D, Sobsey M, Tauxe RV, 1999. Diarrhoea prevention in Bolivia through point-of-use water treatment and safe storage: a promising strategy. Epidemiol Infect 122 :83–90.
-
37
Clasen T, Schmidt W P, Rabie T, Roberts I, Cairncross S, 2007. Interventions to improve water quality for preventing diarrhoea: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ 334 :782–792.
| Past two years | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 170 | 125 | 16 |
| Full Text Views | 523 | 5 | 0 |
| PDF Downloads | 224 | 4 | 0 |
Use of Ceramic Water Filtration in the Prevention of Diarrheal Disease: A Randomized Controlled Trial in Rural South Africa and Zimbabwe
Martella du Preez
Martella du Preez
Natural Resources and the Environment, CSIR, Pretoria, South Africa; Department of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland; Department of Geography, University of Southampton, Southampton, United Kingdom; Research and Technical Services, Institute of Water and Sanitation Development, Harare, Zimbabwe; Natasha Potgieter, Department of Microbiology, University of Venda for Science and Technology, Thohoyandou, Venda, South Africa; Water and Environmental Management Research Centre, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
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Ronán M. Conroy
Ronán M. Conroy
Natural Resources and the Environment, CSIR, Pretoria, South Africa; Department of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland; Department of Geography, University of Southampton, Southampton, United Kingdom; Research and Technical Services, Institute of Water and Sanitation Development, Harare, Zimbabwe; Natasha Potgieter, Department of Microbiology, University of Venda for Science and Technology, Thohoyandou, Venda, South Africa; Water and Environmental Management Research Centre, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
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James A. Wright
James A. Wright
Natural Resources and the Environment, CSIR, Pretoria, South Africa; Department of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland; Department of Geography, University of Southampton, Southampton, United Kingdom; Research and Technical Services, Institute of Water and Sanitation Development, Harare, Zimbabwe; Natasha Potgieter, Department of Microbiology, University of Venda for Science and Technology, Thohoyandou, Venda, South Africa; Water and Environmental Management Research Centre, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
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Sibonginkosi Moyo
Sibonginkosi Moyo
Natural Resources and the Environment, CSIR, Pretoria, South Africa; Department of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland; Department of Geography, University of Southampton, Southampton, United Kingdom; Research and Technical Services, Institute of Water and Sanitation Development, Harare, Zimbabwe; Natasha Potgieter, Department of Microbiology, University of Venda for Science and Technology, Thohoyandou, Venda, South Africa; Water and Environmental Management Research Centre, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
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Natasha Potgieter
Natasha Potgieter
Natural Resources and the Environment, CSIR, Pretoria, South Africa; Department of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland; Department of Geography, University of Southampton, Southampton, United Kingdom; Research and Technical Services, Institute of Water and Sanitation Development, Harare, Zimbabwe; Natasha Potgieter, Department of Microbiology, University of Venda for Science and Technology, Thohoyandou, Venda, South Africa; Water and Environmental Management Research Centre, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
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Stephen W. Gundry
Stephen W. Gundry
Natural Resources and the Environment, CSIR, Pretoria, South Africa; Department of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland; Department of Geography, University of Southampton, Southampton, United Kingdom; Research and Technical Services, Institute of Water and Sanitation Development, Harare, Zimbabwe; Natasha Potgieter, Department of Microbiology, University of Venda for Science and Technology, Thohoyandou, Venda, South Africa; Water and Environmental Management Research Centre, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
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To determine the effectiveness of ceramic filters in reducing diarrhea, we conducted a randomized controlled trial in Zimbabwe and South Africa, in which 61 of 115 households received ceramic filters. Incidence of non-bloody and bloody diarrhea was recorded daily over 6 months using pictorial diaries for children 24–36 months of age. Poisson regression was used to compare incidence rates in intervention and control households. Adjusted for source quality, intervention household drinking water showed reduced Escherichia coli counts (relative risk, 0.67; 95% CI, 0.50–0.89). Zero E. coli were obtained for drinking water in 56.9% of intervention households. The incidence rate ratio for bloody diarrhea was 0.20 (95% CI, 0.09–0.43; P < 0.001) and for non-bloody diarrhea was 0.17 (95% CI, 0.08–0.38; P < 0.001), indicating much lower diarrhea incidence among filter users. The results suggest that ceramic filters are effective in reducing diarrheal disease incidence.
Author Notes
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BibTeX
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-
1
World Health Organization and UNICEF, 2006. Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation. Available at: http://www.wssinfo.org/en/233_wat_africaS.html. Accessed July 16, 2008.
-
2
Statistics South Africa, 2006. General Household Survey. Statistical release P0318. Available at: http://www.statssa.gov.za. Accessed July 16, 2008.
-
3
Bradshaw D, Groenewald P, Laubscher R, Nannan N, Nojilana B, Norman R, Pieterse D, Schneider M, Bourne D, Timæus I, Dorrington R, Johnson L, 2003. Initial burden of disease estimates for South Africa 2000. S Afr Med J 93 :682–688.
-
4
Kosek M, Bern C, Guerrant RL, 2003. The global burden of diarrhoea disease as estimated from studies published between 1992 and 2000. Bull World Health Organ 81 :197–204.
-
5
Nath KJ, Bloomfield SF, Jones M, 2006. Household Water Storage, Handling and Point-of-Use Treatment. A Review Commissioned by the International Scientific Forum on Home Hygiene. Available at: http://www.ifh-homehygiene.org. Accessed July 16, 2008.
-
6
Clasen T, Cairncross S, 2004. Household water treatment: refining the dominant paradigm. Trop Med Int Health 9 :187–191.
-
7
Clasen T, Brown J, Simon C, 2006. Preventing diarrhoea with household ceramic filters: assessment of a pilot project in Bolivia. Int J Environ Health Res 16 :231–239.
-
8
Fewtrell L, Kaufman RB, Kay D, Enanoria W, Haller L, Colford JM Jr, 2005. Water sanitation, and hygiene interventions to reduce diarrhoea in less developed countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet 5 :42–52.
-
9
Sobsey MD, 2000. Managing Water in the Home: Accelerated Health Gains From Improved Water Supply. Available at: http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/wsh0207/en/. Accessed July 16, 2008.
-
10
Clasen T, Parra GG, Boison S, Collin S, 2005. Household-based ceramic water filters for the prevention of diarrhea: a randomized, controlled trail of a pilot program in Columbia. Am J Med Hyg 73 :790–795.
-
11
Clasen T, Brown J, Suntura O, Collin S, 2004. Reducing diarrhoea through household-based ceramic filtration of drinking water: a randomized, controlled trial in Bolivia. Am J Trop Med Hyg 70 :651–657.
-
12
Brown J, Sobsey M, 2006. Post-project appraisal of large-scale home water treatment and storage: lessons from Cambodia, 2002–2006. IWA World Water Congress and Exhibition, 10–14 September, 2006, Beijing International Convention Centre, Beijing, China.
-
13
Sobsey MD, Handzel T, Venczel L, 2003. Chlorination and safe storage of household drinking water in developing countries to reduce waterborne disease. Water Sci Technol 47 :221–228.
-
14
Semenza J, Roberts L, Henderson A, Bogan J, Rubin CH, 1998. Water distribution system and diarrheal disease transmission: a case study in Uzbekistan. Am J Trop Med Hyg 59 :941–946.
-
15
Crump JA, Okoth GO, Slutsker L, Ogaja DO, Keswick GH, Luby SP, 2004. Effect of point-of-use disinfection, flocculation and combined flocculation-disinfection on drinking water quality in western Kenya. J Appl Microbiol 97 :225–231.
-
16
Quick RE, Kimura A, Thevos A, Tembo M, Shamputa I, Hutwagner L, Mintz E, 2002. Diarrhea prevention through household-level water disinfection and safe storage in Zambia. Am J Trop Med Hyg 66 :584–589.
-
17
Reller ME, Mendoza CE, Lopez MB, Alvarez M, Hoekstra RM, Olson CA, Baier KG, Keswick BH, Luby SP, 2003. A randomized control trial of house-hold based flocculant-disinfectant drinking water treatment for diarrhea prevention in rural Guatamala. Am J Trop Hyg 69 :411–419.
-
18
Rose A, Roy S, Abraham V, Holmgren G, George K, Balarai V, Abraham S, Mulivil J, Joseph A, 2006. Solar disinfection of water for diarrhoeal prevention in southern India. Arch Dis Child 91 :139–141.
-
19
Conroy RM, Elmore-Meegan M, Joyce T, McGuigen KG, Barnes J, 1996. Solar disinfection of drinking water and diarrhoea in Maasai children: a controlled field trial. Lancet 348 :1695–1697.
-
20
Conroy RM, Meegan ME, Joyce T, McGuigen KG, Barnes J, 1999. Solar disinfection of water reduce diarrhoeal disease: an update. Arch Dis Child 81 :337–338.
-
21
Kottloff KL, Winickoff JP, Ivanoff B, Clemens JD, Swerdlow DL, Sansonetti PJ, Adak GK, Levine MM, 1999. Global burden of Shigella infections: implications for vaccine development and implementation of control strategies. Bull World Health Organ 77 :651–666.
-
22
Von Seidlein L, Kim DR, Ali M, Lee H, Wang XY, Thiem VD, Canh DG, Chaicumpa W, Agtini MD, Hossain A, Bhutta ZA, Mason C, Sethabur O, Talukder K, Nair GB, Deen JL, Kotloff K, Clemens J, 2006. A multicentre study of Shigella diarrhoea in six Asian countries: disease burden, clinical manifestations, and microbiology. PLoS Med 3 :e353.
-
23
Chompook P, Samosornsuk S, von Seidlein L, Jitsanguansuk S, Sirima N, Sudjai S, Mangjit P, Kim DR, Wheeler JG, Todd J, Lee H, Ali M, Clemens J, Tapchaisri P, Chaicumpa W, 2005. Estimation of the burden of shigellosis in Thailand: 26-month population-based surveillance study. Bull World Health Organ 83 :739–746.
-
24
Wang X, Du L, von Seidlein L, Xu Z, Zhang Y, Hao Z, Han O, Ma J, Lee H, Ali M, Han C, Xing Z, Chen J, Clemens J, 2005. Occurrence of shigellosis in the young and the elderly in rural China: results of a 12-month population-based surveillance study. J Am Trop Med Hyg 73 :416–422.
-
25
WHO, 2005. Guidelines for Control of Shigellosis Including Epidemics Due to Shigella dysenteriae Type 1. Available at: http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2005/9241592330.pdf. Accessed July 16, 2008.
-
26
Gundry SW, Wright JA, 2004. “Smiley” diaries: a simple way of recording diarrhoea episodes. Waterlines 22 :13.
-
27
Actuarial Society of South Africa, 2000. AIDS and Demographic Model. Available at: http://www.assa.org.za. Accessed July 16, 2008.
-
28
Statistics South Africa, 2004. Census 2001. Pretoria: Statistics South Africa.
-
29
Central Statistical Office, 2003. Census 2002: Preliminary Results Summary. Harare: Government of Zimbabwe.
-
30
Central Statistical Office, 1994. Census 1992 Provincial Profile: Masvingo. Harare: Government of Zimbabwe.
-
31
Gundry SW, Wright JA, Conroy R, du Preez M, Genthe B, Moyo S, Mutisi C, Ndamba J, Potgieter N, 2006. Contamination of drinking water between source and point-of-use in rural households of South Africa and Zimbabwe: implications for monitoring the Millennium Development Goal for water. Water Pract Technol 1.
-
32
Baqui AH, Black RE, Yunus M, Hoque AR, Chowdhury HR, Sack RB, 1991. Methodological issues in diarrhoeal diseases epidemiology: definition of diarrhoeal episodes. Int J Epidemiol 20 :1057–1063.
-
33
Statistics South Africa, 2003. Census 2001: Census in Brief. Pretoria: Statistics South Africa.
-
34
Clasen T, Boisson S, 2006. Household-based ceramic water filters for the treatment of drinking water in disaster response: an assessment of a pilot programme in the Dominican Republic. Water Pract Technol 1.
-
35
Ronsmans C, Bennish ML, Wierzba T, 1988. Diagnosis and management of dysentery by community health workers. Lancet 3 :552–555.
-
36
Quick RE, Venczel LV, Mintz ED, Soleto L, Aparicio J, Gironaz M, Hutwagner L, Greene K, Bopp C, Maloney K, Chavez D, Sobsey M, Tauxe RV, 1999. Diarrhoea prevention in Bolivia through point-of-use water treatment and safe storage: a promising strategy. Epidemiol Infect 122 :83–90.
-
37
Clasen T, Schmidt W P, Rabie T, Roberts I, Cairncross S, 2007. Interventions to improve water quality for preventing diarrhoea: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ 334 :782–792.
| Past two years | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 170 | 125 | 16 |
| Full Text Views | 523 | 5 | 0 |
| PDF Downloads | 224 | 4 | 0 |