ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1
Payne D, 1987. Spread of chloroquine resistance in Plasmodium falciparum. Parasitol Today 3 :241–246.
-
2
World Health Organization and UNICEF, 2005. Malaria control, by region. World Malaria Report 2005. Geneva: World Health Organization, 19–63.
-
3
Harinasuta T, Viravan C, Reid HA, 1967. Sulphormethoxine in chloroquine-resistant falciparum malaria in Thailand. Lancet 1 :1117–1119.
-
4
Wernsdorfer WH, 1991. The development and spread of drug-resistant malaria. Parasitol Today 7 :297–303.
-
5
Nash D, Nair S, Mayxay M, Newton PN, Guthmann JP, Nosten F, Anderson TJ, 2005. Selection strength and hitchhiking around two anti-malarial resistance genes. Proc Biol Sci 272 :1153–1161.
-
6
Anderson TJ, Nair S, Sudimack D, Williams JT, Mayxay M, Newton PN, Guthmann JP, Smithuis FM, Tran TH, van den Broek IV, White NJ, Nosten F, 2005. Geographical distribution of selected and putatively neutral SNPs in Southeast Asian malaria parasites. Mol Biol Evol 22 :2362–2374.
-
7
Hurwitz ES, Johnson D, Campbell CC, 1981. Resistance of Plasmodium falciparum malaria to sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine (‘Fansidar’) in a refugee camp in Thailand. Lancet 1 :1068–1070.
-
8
Fidock DA, Nomura T, Talley AK, Cooper RA, Dzekunov SM, Ferdig MT, Ursos LM, Sidhu AB, Naude B, Deitsch KW, Su XZ, Wootton JC, Roepe PD, Wellems TE, 2000. Mutations in the P. falciparum digestive vacuole transmembrane protein PfCRT and evidence for their role in chloroquine resistance. Mol Cell 6 :861–871.
-
9
Cowman AF, Morry MJ, Biggs BA, Cross GA, Foote SJ, 1988. Amino acid changes linked to pyrimethamine resistance in the dihydrofolate reductase-thymidylate synthase gene of Plasmodium falciparum. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 85 :9109–9113.
-
10
Peterson DS, Walliker D, Wellems TE, 1988. Evidence that a point mutation in dihydrofolate reductase-thymidylate synthase confers resistance to pyrimethamine in falciparum malaria. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 85 :9114–9118.
-
11
Sirawaraporn W, Sathitkul T, Sirawaraporn R, Yuthavong Y, Santi DV, 1997. Antifolate-resistant mutants of Plasmodium falciparum dihydrofolate reductase. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 94 :1124–1129.
-
12
Chen N, Russell B, Staley J, Kotecka B, Nasveld P, Cheng Q, 2001. Sequence polymorphisms in pfcrt are strongly associated with chloroquine resistance in Plasmodium falciparum. J Infect Dis 183 :1543–1545.
-
13
Wellems TE, Plowe CV, 2001. Chloroquine-resistant malaria. J Infect Dis 184 :770–776.
-
14
Nair S, Williams JT, Brockman A, Paiphun L, Mayxay M, Newton PN, Guthmann JP, Smithuis FM, Hien TT, White NJ, Nosten F, Anderson TJ, 2003. A selective sweep driven by pyri-methamine treatment in Southeast Asian malaria parasites. Mol Biol Evol 20 :1526–1536.
-
15
Mita T, Tanabe K, Takahashi N, Tsukahara T, Eto H, Dysoley L, Ohmae H, Kita K, Krudsood S, Looareesuwan S, Kaneko A, Bjorkman A, Kobayakawa T, 2007. Independent evolution of pyrimethamine resistance in Plasmodium falciparum isolates in Melanesia. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 51 :1071–1077.
-
16
Roper C, Pearce R, Nair S, Sharp B, Nosten F, Anderson T, 2004. Intercontinental spread of pyrimethamine-resistant malaria. Science 305 :1124.
-
17
Wootton JC, Feng X, Ferdig MT, Cooper RA, Mu J, Baruch DI, Magill AJ, Su XZ, 2002. Genetic diversity and chloroquine selective sweeps in Plasmodium falciparum. Nature 418 :320–323.
-
18
Gatton ML, Martin LB, Cheng Q, 2004. Evolution of resistance to sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine in Plasmodium falciparum. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 48 :2116–2123.
-
19
Hastings IM, Korenromp EI, Bloland PB, 2007. The anatomy of a malaria disaster: drug policy choice and mortality in African children. Lancet Infect Dis 7 :739–748.
-
20
Cravo P, Culleton R, Hunt P, Walliker D, Mackinnon MJ, 2001. Antimalarial drugs clear resistant parasites from partially immune hosts. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 45 :2897–2901.
-
21
Francis D, Nsobya SL, Talisuna A, Yeka A, Kamya MR, Machekano R, Dokomajilar C, Rosenthal PJ, Dorsey G, 2006. Geographic differences in antimalarial drug efficacy in Uganda are explained by differences in endemicity and not by known molecular markers of drug resistance. J Infect Dis 193 :978–986.
-
22
Mita T, Kaneko A, Lum JK, Bwijo B, Takechi M, Zungu IL, Tsukahara T, Tanabe K, Kobayakawa T, Bjorkman A, 2003. Recovery of chloroquine sensitivity and low prevalence of the Plasmodium falciparum chloroquine resistance transporter gene mutation K76T following the discontinuance of chloroquine use in Malawi. Am J Trop Med Hyg 68 :413–415.
-
23
Kimura M, Suzaki A, Matsumoto Y, Nakajima K, Wataya Y, Ohtomo H, 2003. Epidemiological and clinical aspects of malaria in Japan. J Travel Med 10 :122–127.
-
24
Kimura M, Kaneko O, Inoue A, Ishii A, Tanabe K, 1995. Amplification by polymerase chain reaction of Plasmodium falciparum DNA from Giemsa-stained thin blood smears. Mol Biochem Parasitol 70 :193–197.
-
25
Djimde A, Doumbo OK, Cortese JF, Kayentao K, Doumbo S, Diourte Y, Dicko A, Su XZ, Nomura T, Fidock DA, Wellems TE, Plowe CV, Coulibaly D, 2001. A molecular marker for chloroquine-resistant falciparum malaria. N Engl J Med 344 :257–263.
-
26
Thaithong S, Beale GH, 1981. Resistance of ten Thai isolates of Plasmodium falciparum to chloroquine and pyrimethamine by in vitro tests. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 75 :271–273.
-
27
Oduola AM, Alexander BM, Weatherly NF, Bowdre JH, Desjardins RE, 1985. Use of non-human plasma for in vitro cultivation and antimalarial drug susceptibility testing of Plasmodium falciparum. Am J Trop Med Hyg 34 :209–215.
-
28
Treutiger CJ, Scholander C, Carlson J, McAdam KP, Raynes JG, Falksveden L, Wahlgren M, 1999. Rouleaux-forming serum proteins are involved in the rosetting of Plasmodium falciparum-infected erythrocytes. Exp Parasitol 93 :215–224.
-
29
Sakihama N, Nakamura M, Palanca AA Jr, Argubano RA, Realon EP, Larracas AL, Espina RL, Tanabe K, 2007. Allelic diversity in the merozoite surface protein 1 gene of Plasmodium falciparum on Palawan Island, the Philippines. Parasitol Int 56 :185–194.
-
30
Lim P, Chy S, Ariey F, Incardona S, Chim P, Sem R, Denis MB, Hewitt S, Hoyer S, Socheat D, Merecreau-Puijalon O, Fandeur T, 2003. Pfcrt polymorphism and chloroquine resistance in Plasmodium falciparum strains isolated in Cambodia. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 47 :87–94.
-
31
Durrand V, Berry A, Sem R, Glaziou P, Beaudou J, Fandeur T, 2004. Variations in the sequence and expression of the Plasmodium falciparum chloroquine resistance transporter (pfcrt) and their relationship to chloroquine resistance in vitro. Mol Biochem Parasitol 136 :273–285.
-
32
Nagesha HS, Casey GJ, Rieckmann KH, Fryauff DJ, Laksana BS, Reeder JC, Maguire JD, Baird JK, 2003. New haplotypes of the Plasmodium falciparum chloroquine resistance transporter (pfcrt) gene among chloroquine-resistant parasite isolates. Am J Trop Med Hyg 68 :398–402.
-
33
Huaman MC, Yoshinaga K, Suryanatha A, Suarsana N, Kanbara H, 2004. Short report: polymorphisms in the chloroquine resistance transporter gene in Plasmodium falciparum isolates from Lombok, Indonesia. Am J Trop Med Hyg 71 :40–42.
-
34
Cooper RA, Ferdig MT, Su XZ, Ursos LM, Mu J, Nomura T, Fujioka H, Fidock DA, Roepe PD, Wellems TE, 2002. Alternative mutations at position 76 of the vacuolar transmembrane protein PfCRT are associated with chloroquine resistance and unique stereospecific quinine and quinidine responses in Plasmodium falciparum. Mol Pharmacol 61 :35–42.
-
35
Mehlotra RK, Mattera G, Bhatia K, Reeder JC, Stoneking M, Zimmerman PA, 2005. Insight into the early spread of chloroquine-resistant Plasmodium falciparum infections in Papua New Guinea. J Infect Dis 192 :2174–2179.
-
36
Chan CW, Lynch D, Spathis R, Hombhanje FW, Kaneko A, Garruto RM, Lum JK, 2006. Flashback to the 1960s: utility of archived sera to explore the origin and evolution of Plasmodium falciparum chloroquine resistance in the Pacific. Acta Trop 99 :15–22.
-
37
Chen N, Kyle DE, Pasay C, Fowler EV, Baker J, Peters JM, Cheng Q, 2003. pfcrt Allelic types with two novel amino acid mutations in chloroquine-resistant Plasmodium falciparum isolates from the Philippines. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 47 :3500–3505.
-
38
Chen N, Wilson DW, Pasay C, Bell D, Martin LB, Kyle D, Cheng Q, 2005. Origin and dissemination of chloroquine-resistant Plasmodium falciparum with mutant pfcrt alleles in the Philippines. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 49 :2102–2105.
-
39
Nagesha HS, Din S, Casey GJ, Susanti AI, Fryauff DJ, Reeder JC, Cowman AF, 2001. Mutations in the pfmdr1, dhfr and dhps genes of Plasmodium falciparum are associated with in-vivo drug resistance in West Papua, Indonesia. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 95 :43–49.
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40
Reeder JC, Rieckmann KH, Genton B, Lorry K, Wines B, Cowman AF, 1996. Point mutations in the dihydrofolate reductase and dihydropteroate synthetase genes and in vitro susceptibility to pyrimethamine and cycloguanil of Plasmodium falciparum isolates from Papua New Guinea. Am J Trop Med Hyg 55 :209–213.
-
41
Ngo T, Duraisingh M, Reed M, Hipgrave D, Biggs B, Cowman AF, 2003. Analysis of pfcrt, pfmdr1, dhfr, and dhps mutations and drug sensitivities in Plasmodium falciparum isolates from patients in Vietnam before and after treatment with artemisinin. Am J Trop Med Hyg 68 :350–356.
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42
Fryauff DJ, Leksana B, Masbar S, Wiady I, Sismadi P, Susanti AI, Nagesha HS, Syafruddin, Atmosoedjono S, Bangs MJ, Baird JK, 2002. The drug sensitivity and transmission dynamics of human malaria on Nias Island, North Sumatra, Indonesia. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 96 :447–462.
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43
Hatabu T, Kawazu S, Suzuki J, Valenzuela RF, Villacorte EA, Suzuki M, Rivera PT, Kano S, 2003. In vitro susceptibility of Plasmodium falciparum isolates to chloroquine and mefloquine in southeastern Mindanao Island, the Philippines. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health 34 :546–551.
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44
Tanabe K, Sakihama N, Kaneko A, 2004. Stable SNPs in malaria antigen genes in isolated populations. Science 303 :493.
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45
Sakihama N, Ohmae H, Bakote’e B, Kawabata M, Hirayama K, Tanabe K, 2006. Limited allelic diversity of Plasmodium falciparum merozoite surface protein 1 gene from populations in the Solomon Islands. Am J Trop Med Hyg 74 :31–40.
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Genetic Evidence for Plasmodium falciparum Resistance to Chloroquine and Pyrimethamine in Indochina and the Western Pacific between 1984 and 1998
Yumiko Saito-Nakano
Yumiko Saito-Nakano
Department of Parasitology, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan; Laboratory of Malariology, International Research Center of Infectious Diseases, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan; Faculty of Human Care, Teikyo College, Tokyo, Japan; Department of Appropriate Technology Development and Transfer, Research Institute, International Medical Center of Japan, Tokyo, Japan; Research Unit for Advanced Preventive Medicine, National Research Center for Protozoan Diseases, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido, Japan
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Kazuyuki Tanabe
Kazuyuki Tanabe
Department of Parasitology, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan; Laboratory of Malariology, International Research Center of Infectious Diseases, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan; Faculty of Human Care, Teikyo College, Tokyo, Japan; Department of Appropriate Technology Development and Transfer, Research Institute, International Medical Center of Japan, Tokyo, Japan; Research Unit for Advanced Preventive Medicine, National Research Center for Protozoan Diseases, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido, Japan
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Kiseko Kamei
Kiseko Kamei
Department of Parasitology, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan; Laboratory of Malariology, International Research Center of Infectious Diseases, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan; Faculty of Human Care, Teikyo College, Tokyo, Japan; Department of Appropriate Technology Development and Transfer, Research Institute, International Medical Center of Japan, Tokyo, Japan; Research Unit for Advanced Preventive Medicine, National Research Center for Protozoan Diseases, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido, Japan
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Moritoshi Iwagami
Moritoshi Iwagami
Department of Parasitology, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan; Laboratory of Malariology, International Research Center of Infectious Diseases, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan; Faculty of Human Care, Teikyo College, Tokyo, Japan; Department of Appropriate Technology Development and Transfer, Research Institute, International Medical Center of Japan, Tokyo, Japan; Research Unit for Advanced Preventive Medicine, National Research Center for Protozoan Diseases, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido, Japan
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Kanako Komaki-Yasuda
Kanako Komaki-Yasuda
Department of Parasitology, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan; Laboratory of Malariology, International Research Center of Infectious Diseases, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan; Faculty of Human Care, Teikyo College, Tokyo, Japan; Department of Appropriate Technology Development and Transfer, Research Institute, International Medical Center of Japan, Tokyo, Japan; Research Unit for Advanced Preventive Medicine, National Research Center for Protozoan Diseases, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido, Japan
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Shin-ichiro Kawazu
Shin-ichiro Kawazu
Department of Parasitology, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan; Laboratory of Malariology, International Research Center of Infectious Diseases, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan; Faculty of Human Care, Teikyo College, Tokyo, Japan; Department of Appropriate Technology Development and Transfer, Research Institute, International Medical Center of Japan, Tokyo, Japan; Research Unit for Advanced Preventive Medicine, National Research Center for Protozoan Diseases, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido, Japan
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Shigeyuki Kano
Shigeyuki Kano
Department of Parasitology, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan; Laboratory of Malariology, International Research Center of Infectious Diseases, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan; Faculty of Human Care, Teikyo College, Tokyo, Japan; Department of Appropriate Technology Development and Transfer, Research Institute, International Medical Center of Japan, Tokyo, Japan; Research Unit for Advanced Preventive Medicine, National Research Center for Protozoan Diseases, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido, Japan
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Hiroshi Ohmae
Hiroshi Ohmae
Department of Parasitology, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan; Laboratory of Malariology, International Research Center of Infectious Diseases, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan; Faculty of Human Care, Teikyo College, Tokyo, Japan; Department of Appropriate Technology Development and Transfer, Research Institute, International Medical Center of Japan, Tokyo, Japan; Research Unit for Advanced Preventive Medicine, National Research Center for Protozoan Diseases, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido, Japan
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Takuro Endo
Takuro Endo
Department of Parasitology, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan; Laboratory of Malariology, International Research Center of Infectious Diseases, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan; Faculty of Human Care, Teikyo College, Tokyo, Japan; Department of Appropriate Technology Development and Transfer, Research Institute, International Medical Center of Japan, Tokyo, Japan; Research Unit for Advanced Preventive Medicine, National Research Center for Protozoan Diseases, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido, Japan
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Plasmodium falciparum resistance to chloroquine and pyrimethamine is widely distributed in malaria-endemic areas. The origin and geographic spread of this drug resistance have been inferred mainly from records of clinical resistance (treatment failure). Identification of the Plasmodium falciparum chloroqunie resistance transporter (pfcrt) gene and the dihydrofolate reductase (dhfr) gene as target genes of chloroquine and pyrimethamine, respectively, has made it possible to trace the history of genetic resistance to these two drugs. However, evidence for genetic resistance has been limited because of scarcity of archival specimens. We examined genotypes of pfcrt and dhfr in Indochina (Thailand, Myanmar, and Laos) and the Western Pacific (the Philippines, Indonesia, and Papua New Guinea) between 1984 and 1998 by testing samples obtained from malaria cases imported to Japan. Results show that 96% (28 of 29) and 77% (20 of 26) of samples had resistant genotypes of pfcrt and dhfr, respectively, substantiating the inferred history of clinical resistance in these geographic areas during this period.
Author Notes
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1
Payne D, 1987. Spread of chloroquine resistance in Plasmodium falciparum. Parasitol Today 3 :241–246.
-
2
World Health Organization and UNICEF, 2005. Malaria control, by region. World Malaria Report 2005. Geneva: World Health Organization, 19–63.
-
3
Harinasuta T, Viravan C, Reid HA, 1967. Sulphormethoxine in chloroquine-resistant falciparum malaria in Thailand. Lancet 1 :1117–1119.
-
4
Wernsdorfer WH, 1991. The development and spread of drug-resistant malaria. Parasitol Today 7 :297–303.
-
5
Nash D, Nair S, Mayxay M, Newton PN, Guthmann JP, Nosten F, Anderson TJ, 2005. Selection strength and hitchhiking around two anti-malarial resistance genes. Proc Biol Sci 272 :1153–1161.
-
6
Anderson TJ, Nair S, Sudimack D, Williams JT, Mayxay M, Newton PN, Guthmann JP, Smithuis FM, Tran TH, van den Broek IV, White NJ, Nosten F, 2005. Geographical distribution of selected and putatively neutral SNPs in Southeast Asian malaria parasites. Mol Biol Evol 22 :2362–2374.
-
7
Hurwitz ES, Johnson D, Campbell CC, 1981. Resistance of Plasmodium falciparum malaria to sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine (‘Fansidar’) in a refugee camp in Thailand. Lancet 1 :1068–1070.
-
8
Fidock DA, Nomura T, Talley AK, Cooper RA, Dzekunov SM, Ferdig MT, Ursos LM, Sidhu AB, Naude B, Deitsch KW, Su XZ, Wootton JC, Roepe PD, Wellems TE, 2000. Mutations in the P. falciparum digestive vacuole transmembrane protein PfCRT and evidence for their role in chloroquine resistance. Mol Cell 6 :861–871.
-
9
Cowman AF, Morry MJ, Biggs BA, Cross GA, Foote SJ, 1988. Amino acid changes linked to pyrimethamine resistance in the dihydrofolate reductase-thymidylate synthase gene of Plasmodium falciparum. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 85 :9109–9113.
-
10
Peterson DS, Walliker D, Wellems TE, 1988. Evidence that a point mutation in dihydrofolate reductase-thymidylate synthase confers resistance to pyrimethamine in falciparum malaria. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 85 :9114–9118.
-
11
Sirawaraporn W, Sathitkul T, Sirawaraporn R, Yuthavong Y, Santi DV, 1997. Antifolate-resistant mutants of Plasmodium falciparum dihydrofolate reductase. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 94 :1124–1129.
-
12
Chen N, Russell B, Staley J, Kotecka B, Nasveld P, Cheng Q, 2001. Sequence polymorphisms in pfcrt are strongly associated with chloroquine resistance in Plasmodium falciparum. J Infect Dis 183 :1543–1545.
-
13
Wellems TE, Plowe CV, 2001. Chloroquine-resistant malaria. J Infect Dis 184 :770–776.
-
14
Nair S, Williams JT, Brockman A, Paiphun L, Mayxay M, Newton PN, Guthmann JP, Smithuis FM, Hien TT, White NJ, Nosten F, Anderson TJ, 2003. A selective sweep driven by pyri-methamine treatment in Southeast Asian malaria parasites. Mol Biol Evol 20 :1526–1536.
-
15
Mita T, Tanabe K, Takahashi N, Tsukahara T, Eto H, Dysoley L, Ohmae H, Kita K, Krudsood S, Looareesuwan S, Kaneko A, Bjorkman A, Kobayakawa T, 2007. Independent evolution of pyrimethamine resistance in Plasmodium falciparum isolates in Melanesia. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 51 :1071–1077.
-
16
Roper C, Pearce R, Nair S, Sharp B, Nosten F, Anderson T, 2004. Intercontinental spread of pyrimethamine-resistant malaria. Science 305 :1124.
-
17
Wootton JC, Feng X, Ferdig MT, Cooper RA, Mu J, Baruch DI, Magill AJ, Su XZ, 2002. Genetic diversity and chloroquine selective sweeps in Plasmodium falciparum. Nature 418 :320–323.
-
18
Gatton ML, Martin LB, Cheng Q, 2004. Evolution of resistance to sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine in Plasmodium falciparum. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 48 :2116–2123.
-
19
Hastings IM, Korenromp EI, Bloland PB, 2007. The anatomy of a malaria disaster: drug policy choice and mortality in African children. Lancet Infect Dis 7 :739–748.
-
20
Cravo P, Culleton R, Hunt P, Walliker D, Mackinnon MJ, 2001. Antimalarial drugs clear resistant parasites from partially immune hosts. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 45 :2897–2901.
-
21
Francis D, Nsobya SL, Talisuna A, Yeka A, Kamya MR, Machekano R, Dokomajilar C, Rosenthal PJ, Dorsey G, 2006. Geographic differences in antimalarial drug efficacy in Uganda are explained by differences in endemicity and not by known molecular markers of drug resistance. J Infect Dis 193 :978–986.
-
22
Mita T, Kaneko A, Lum JK, Bwijo B, Takechi M, Zungu IL, Tsukahara T, Tanabe K, Kobayakawa T, Bjorkman A, 2003. Recovery of chloroquine sensitivity and low prevalence of the Plasmodium falciparum chloroquine resistance transporter gene mutation K76T following the discontinuance of chloroquine use in Malawi. Am J Trop Med Hyg 68 :413–415.
-
23
Kimura M, Suzaki A, Matsumoto Y, Nakajima K, Wataya Y, Ohtomo H, 2003. Epidemiological and clinical aspects of malaria in Japan. J Travel Med 10 :122–127.
-
24
Kimura M, Kaneko O, Inoue A, Ishii A, Tanabe K, 1995. Amplification by polymerase chain reaction of Plasmodium falciparum DNA from Giemsa-stained thin blood smears. Mol Biochem Parasitol 70 :193–197.
-
25
Djimde A, Doumbo OK, Cortese JF, Kayentao K, Doumbo S, Diourte Y, Dicko A, Su XZ, Nomura T, Fidock DA, Wellems TE, Plowe CV, Coulibaly D, 2001. A molecular marker for chloroquine-resistant falciparum malaria. N Engl J Med 344 :257–263.
-
26
Thaithong S, Beale GH, 1981. Resistance of ten Thai isolates of Plasmodium falciparum to chloroquine and pyrimethamine by in vitro tests. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 75 :271–273.
-
27
Oduola AM, Alexander BM, Weatherly NF, Bowdre JH, Desjardins RE, 1985. Use of non-human plasma for in vitro cultivation and antimalarial drug susceptibility testing of Plasmodium falciparum. Am J Trop Med Hyg 34 :209–215.
-
28
Treutiger CJ, Scholander C, Carlson J, McAdam KP, Raynes JG, Falksveden L, Wahlgren M, 1999. Rouleaux-forming serum proteins are involved in the rosetting of Plasmodium falciparum-infected erythrocytes. Exp Parasitol 93 :215–224.
-
29
Sakihama N, Nakamura M, Palanca AA Jr, Argubano RA, Realon EP, Larracas AL, Espina RL, Tanabe K, 2007. Allelic diversity in the merozoite surface protein 1 gene of Plasmodium falciparum on Palawan Island, the Philippines. Parasitol Int 56 :185–194.
-
30
Lim P, Chy S, Ariey F, Incardona S, Chim P, Sem R, Denis MB, Hewitt S, Hoyer S, Socheat D, Merecreau-Puijalon O, Fandeur T, 2003. Pfcrt polymorphism and chloroquine resistance in Plasmodium falciparum strains isolated in Cambodia. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 47 :87–94.
-
31
Durrand V, Berry A, Sem R, Glaziou P, Beaudou J, Fandeur T, 2004. Variations in the sequence and expression of the Plasmodium falciparum chloroquine resistance transporter (pfcrt) and their relationship to chloroquine resistance in vitro. Mol Biochem Parasitol 136 :273–285.
-
32
Nagesha HS, Casey GJ, Rieckmann KH, Fryauff DJ, Laksana BS, Reeder JC, Maguire JD, Baird JK, 2003. New haplotypes of the Plasmodium falciparum chloroquine resistance transporter (pfcrt) gene among chloroquine-resistant parasite isolates. Am J Trop Med Hyg 68 :398–402.
-
33
Huaman MC, Yoshinaga K, Suryanatha A, Suarsana N, Kanbara H, 2004. Short report: polymorphisms in the chloroquine resistance transporter gene in Plasmodium falciparum isolates from Lombok, Indonesia. Am J Trop Med Hyg 71 :40–42.
-
34
Cooper RA, Ferdig MT, Su XZ, Ursos LM, Mu J, Nomura T, Fujioka H, Fidock DA, Roepe PD, Wellems TE, 2002. Alternative mutations at position 76 of the vacuolar transmembrane protein PfCRT are associated with chloroquine resistance and unique stereospecific quinine and quinidine responses in Plasmodium falciparum. Mol Pharmacol 61 :35–42.
-
35
Mehlotra RK, Mattera G, Bhatia K, Reeder JC, Stoneking M, Zimmerman PA, 2005. Insight into the early spread of chloroquine-resistant Plasmodium falciparum infections in Papua New Guinea. J Infect Dis 192 :2174–2179.
-
36
Chan CW, Lynch D, Spathis R, Hombhanje FW, Kaneko A, Garruto RM, Lum JK, 2006. Flashback to the 1960s: utility of archived sera to explore the origin and evolution of Plasmodium falciparum chloroquine resistance in the Pacific. Acta Trop 99 :15–22.
-
37
Chen N, Kyle DE, Pasay C, Fowler EV, Baker J, Peters JM, Cheng Q, 2003. pfcrt Allelic types with two novel amino acid mutations in chloroquine-resistant Plasmodium falciparum isolates from the Philippines. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 47 :3500–3505.
-
38
Chen N, Wilson DW, Pasay C, Bell D, Martin LB, Kyle D, Cheng Q, 2005. Origin and dissemination of chloroquine-resistant Plasmodium falciparum with mutant pfcrt alleles in the Philippines. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 49 :2102–2105.
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39
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