ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1
United Nations Population Division, 2003. World Urbanization Prospects: The 2007 Revision Population Database. Available at: http://esa.un.org/unup/. Accessed July 2005.
-
2
Seckler D, Amarasinghe U, Molden D, de Silva R, Barker R, 1998. World Water Demand and Supply, 1990 to 2025: Scenarios and Issues. Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Water Management Institute.
-
3
World Health Organization, 2006. Guidelines for the Safe Use of Wastewater, Excreta and Greywater in Agriculture. Volume 2. Wastewater Use in Agriculture. Geneva: World Health Organization.
-
4
Scott CA, Faruqui NI, Raschid-Sally L, 2004. Wastewater use in irrigated agriculture: management challenges in developing countries. Scott CA, Faruqui NI, Raschid-Sally L, eds. Wastewater Use in Irrigated Agriculture: Confronting the Livelihood and Environmental Realities. Wallingford, United Kingdom: Cabi Publishing, 1–10.
-
5
Shuval HI, Adin A, Fattal B, Rawitz E, Yekutiel P, 1986. Wastewater Irrigation in Developing Countries: Health Effects and Technical Solutions. Washington DC: The World Bank.
-
6
Blumenthal U, Peasey A, 2002. Critical Review of Epidemiological Evidence of the Health Effects of Wastewater and Excreta Use in Agriculture. Geneva: World Health Organization.
-
7
Anderson RM, May RM, 1991. Infectious Diseases of Humans: Dynamics and Control. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press.
-
8
Brooker S, Bethony J, Hotez PJ, 2004. Human hookworm infection in the 21st century. Adv Parasitol 58 :197–288.
-
9
United Nations, 2002. World Urbanization Prospects, the 2001 Revision. New York: United Nations.
-
10
Buechler S, Devi G, Raschid-Sally L, 2002. Livelihoods and wastewater irrigated agriculture: Musi River in Hyderabad city, Andhra Pradesh, India. Urban Agriculture: 14–17.
-
11
Ensink JHJ, 2006. Wastewater Quality and the Risk of Hookworm Infection in Pakistani and Indian Sewage Farmers. PhD thesis, London: University of London.
-
12
Ridley DS, Hawgood BC, 1956. The value of formal-ether concentration of faecal cysts and ova. J Clin Pathol 9 :74–76.
-
13
World Health Organization, 1987. Prevention and Control of Intestinal Parasitic Infections. Geneva: World Health Organization.
-
14
Brooker S, Peshu N, Warn PA, Mosobo M, Guyatt HL, Marsh K, Snow RW, 1999. The epidemiology of hookworm infection and its contribution to anaemia among pre-school children on the Kenyan coast. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 93 :240–246.
-
15
Olsen A, Samuelsen H, Onyango-Ouma W, 2001. A study of risk factors for intestinal helminth infections using epidemiological and anthropological approaches. J Biosoc Sci 33 :569–584.
-
16
Behnke JM, De Clercq D, Sacko M, Gilbert FS, Ouattara DB, Vercruysse J, 2000. The epidemiology of human hookworm infections in the southern region of Mali. Trop Med Int Health 5 :343–354.
-
17
Shapiro AE, Tukahebwa EM, Kasten J, Clarke SE, Magnussen P, Olsen A, Kabatereine NB, Ndyomugyenyi R, Brooker S, 2005. Epidemiology of helminth infections and their relationship to clinical malaria in southwest Uganda. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 99 :18–24.
-
18
Trangdo T, Vanderhoek W, Cam PD, Vinh KT, Hoa NV, Dalsgaard A, 2006. Low risk for helminth infection in wastewater-fed rice cultivation in Vietnam. J Water Health 4 :321–331.
-
19
Blumenthal UJ, Cifuentes E, Bennett S, Quigley M, Ruiz-Palacios G, 2001. The risk of enteric infections associated with wastewater reuse: the effect of season and degree of storage of wastewater. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 95 :131–137.
-
20
Cifuentes E, 1998. The epidemiology of enteric infections in agricultural communities exposed to wastewater irrigation: perspectives for risk control. Int J Environ Health Res 8 :203–213.
-
21
Habbari K, Tifnouti A, Bitton G, Mandil A, 2000. Geohelminthic infections associated with raw wastewater reuse for agricultural purposes in Beni-Mellal, Morocco. Parasitol Int 48 :249–254.
-
22
Krishnamoorthi KP, Abdulappa MK, Anwikar AK, 1973. Intestinal parasitic infections associated with sewage farm workers with special reference to helminths and protozoa. Proceedings of the Symposium on Environmental Pollution. Nagpur, India: Central Public Health Engineering Research Institute.
-
23
Ensink JH, van der Hoek W, Mukhtar M, Tahir Z, Amerasinghe FP, 2005. High risk of hookworm infection among wastewater farmers in Pakistan. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 99 :809–818.
-
24
Feenstra S, Hussain R, van der Hoek W, 2000. Health Risks of Irrigation with Untreated Urban Wastewater in the Southern Punjab, Pakistan. Lahore, India: International Water Management Institute.
-
25
Srivastava VK, Pandey GK, 1986. Parasitic infections in sewage farm workers. Indian J Parasitol 10 :193–194.
-
26
World Health Organization, 1989. Health Guidelines for the Use of Wastewater in Agriculture and Aquaculture. Geneva: World Health Organization.
-
27
Ayres RM, Lee DL, Mara DD, Silva SA, 1993. The accumulation, distribution and viability of human parasitic nematode eggs in the sludge of a primary facultative waste stabilization pond. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 87 :256–258.
-
28
Bouhoum K, Schwartzbrod J, 1998. Epidemiological study of intestinal helminthiasis in a Marrakech raw sewage spreading zone. Zentralbl Hyg Umweltmed 200 :553–561.
-
29
O’Lorcain P, Holland CV, 2000. The public health importance of Ascaris lumbricoides. Parasitology 121 :S51–S57.
-
30
Blum D, Feachem RG, 1983. Measuring the impact of water supply and sanitation investments on diarrhoeal diseases: problems of methodology. Int J Epidemiol 12 :357–365.
-
31
United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2004. Guidelines for Water Reuse. Washington DC: United States Environmental Protection Agency.
-
32
Buechler S, Devi G, 2002. Household Food Security and Wastewater Dependent Livelihood Activities along the Musi-River in Andhra Pradesh, India. Geneva: World Health Organization.
-
33
Blumenthal UJ, Mara DD, Peasey A, Ruiz-Pallacios G, Stott R, 2000. Guidelines for the microbiological quality of treated wastewater used in agriculture: recommendations for revising WHO guidelines. Bull World Health Organ 78 :1104–1116.
| Past two years | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 2 | 2 | 2 |
| Full Text Views | 333 | 161 | 14 |
| PDF Downloads | 135 | 42 | 12 |
Wastewater Quality and the Risk of Intestinal Nematode Infection in Sewage Farming Families in Hyderabad, India
Use of sewage or wastewater in agriculture is becoming increasingly common as a result of a global water scarcity. Intestinal nematode infections have been identified as the main health risk associated with this practice. To protect consumer and farmer health, the World Health Organization (WHO) has established an intestinal nematode water quality standard. However, because of a lack of well-designed studies, the validity of this guideline is questioned. This report presents the findings of a study on the risk of intestinal nematode infections in farming families occupationally exposed to untreated and partially treated wastewater in Hyderabad, India. The study found an increased risk of hookworm (odds ratio [OR] 3.5, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 2.2–5.5), Ascaris lumbricoides (OR = 5.3, 95% CI = 2.0–14), and Trichuris trichiura (OR = 5.6, 95% CI = 1.8–18) infection when untreated wastewater (150 intestinal nematode ova/liter) was used for crop production. Use of partially treated wastewater (28 intestinal nematode ova/liter) was only associated with an increased risk (OR = 3.2, 95% CI = 1.2–8.6) of A. lumbricoides infection. The findings of the study suggest that the current WHO intestinal nematode guideline of 1 ova/liter is sufficient to protect farmer health.