Author:
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Reference Manager
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-
1
WHO, 2005. World Health Report 2005: Make Every Mother and Child Count. Geneva: World Health Organization.
-
2
NCMH, 2005. Burden of Disease in India. New Delhi: National Commission on Macroeconomics and Health, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India.
-
3
WHO/UNICEF, 2006. Meeting the MDG Drinking Water and Sanitation Target: The Urban and Rural Challenge of the Decade. Geneva: The World Health Organization and the United Nations Children’s Fund.
-
4
Fewtrell L, Kaufmann R, Kay D, Enanoria W, Haller L, Colford J, 2005. Water, sanitation, and hygiene interventions to reduce diarrhoea in less developed countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Infect Dis 5 :42–52.
-
5
Clasen T, Roberts I, Rabie T, Schmidt W-P, Cairncross S, 2006. Interventions to Improve Water Quality for Preventing Diarrhoea (Cochrane Review). The Cochrane Library. Oxford: Update Software.
-
6
Sobsey MD, 2002. Managing Water in the Home: Accelerated Health Gains From Improved Water Supply. Geneva: The World Health Organization.
-
7
Abadie Rosa MG, 2007. Re-assessing boiling as a mean of treating drinking water: an analysis in relation to alternative available options. MSc dissertation, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, UK.
-
8
Block SS, 2001. Disinfection, Sterilization and Preservation. Fifth edition. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
-
9
Iijima Y, Karama M, Oundo JO, Honda T, 2001. Prevention of bacterial diarrhoea by pasteurization of drinking water in Kenya. Microbiol Immunol 45 :413–416.
-
10
Gilman RH, Skillicorn P, 1985. Boiling of drinking-water: can a fuel-scarce community afford it? Bull WHO 63 :157–163.
-
11
CDC, 2005. Emergency Preparedness & Response: Emergency Water Storage and Purification. Atlanta, GA: US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
-
12
Davis J, Lambert R, 2002. Engineering in Emergencies. London: Intermediate Technology Publications.
-
13
Nnochiri E, 1975. Medical Microbiology in the Tropics. London: Oxford University Press.
-
14
WHO, 2004. Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality. Third edition, vol. 1. Gneva: World Health Organization.
-
15
Brick T, Primrose B, Chandrasekhar R, Roy S, Muliyil J, Kang G, 2004. Water contamination in urban south India: household storage practices and their implications for water safety and enteric infections. Int J Hyg Environ Health 207 :473–480.
-
16
Wright J, Gundry S, Conroy R, 2003. Household drinking water in developing countries: a systematic review of microbiological contamination between source and point-of-use. Trop Med Int Health 9 :106–117.
-
17
Luby SP, Syed AH, Atiullah N, Faizan MK, Fisher-Hoch S, 1999. Limited effectiveness of home drinking water purification efforts in Karachi, Pakistan. Int J Infect Dis 4 :3–7.
-
18
Gupta SK, Suantio A, Gray A, Widyastuti E, Jain N, Rolos R, Hoekstra RM, Quick R, 2007. Factors associated with E. coli contamination of household drinking water among tsunami and earthquake survivors, Indonesia. Am J Trop Med Hyg 76 :1158–1162.
-
19
Rehfuess E, Mehta S, Pruss-Ustun A, 2006. Assessing household solid fuel use: multiple implications for the Millennium Development Goals. Environ Health Perspect 114 :373–378.
-
20
Biran A, Abbot J, Mace R, 2004. Families and firewood: the costs and benefits of children in firewood collection and use in two rural communities in Sub-Saharan Africa. Hum Ecol 32 :1–25.
-
21
Smith KR, 2002. Indoor air pollution in developing countries: recommendations for research. Indoor Air 12 :198–207.
-
22
Rossi LA, Braga EC, Barruffini RC, Carvalho EC, 1998. Childhood burn injuries: circumstances of occurrences and their prevention in Ribeirao Preto, Brazil. Burns 24 :416–419.
-
23
DHS, 2006. Demographic and Health Survey, India 2005–2006. Available at: http://www.measuredhs.com/pubs/pdf/FRIND3/02Chapter02.pdf. Accessed November 13, 2007.
-
24
Clasen T, Do Houng T, Boisson S, Shippin O, 2008. Microbiological effectiveness and cost of boiling to disinfect water in rural Vietnam. Environ Sci Technol. 42 :4255–4260.
-
25
APHA, 2001. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater. Twenty-first edition. Washington, DC: American Public Health Association/American Water Works Association/Water Environment Federation.
-
26
LeChevallier MW, Jakanoski PE, Camper AK, McFeters GA, 1984. Evaluation of m-T7 agar as a fecal coliform medium. Appl Environ Microbiol 48 :371–375.
-
27
McLaughlin C, 2006. Costs of treating drinking water by boiling in Virar, Vasai and Nalasopara, India. MSc dissertation, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, UK.
-
28
Shankar KK, 2007. Government extends kerosene, LPG subsidy till 2010. The India Express. Available at: http://www.indianexpress.com/story/227425.html. Accessed October 22, 2007.
-
29
Labour Bureau, 2005. Wage Rates in Rural India for the Year 2004–2005. New Delhi: Labour Bureau, Government of India.
-
30
WHO, 2007. Combating Waterborne Disease at the Household Level. Geneva: World Health Organization.
-
31
Clasen T, Haller L, 2007. Water Quality Interventions to Prevent Diarrhoea: Cost and Cost Effectiveness. Geneva: World Health Organisation.
-
32
Kirchhoff LV, McClelland KE, Do Carmo Pinho M, Araujo JG, De Sousa MA, Guerrant RL, 1985. Feasibility and efficacy of in-home caer chlorination in rural North-eastern Brazil. J Hygiene (Lond) 94 :173–180.
-
33
Clasen T, Boisson S, 2006. Household-based ceramic water filters for the treatment of drinking water in disaster response: an assessment of a pilot programme in the Dominican Republic. Water Practice Tech 1 :2.
-
34
Stauber CE, Elliott MA, Koksai F, Ortiz GM, DiGiano FA, Sobsey MD, 2006. Characterisation of the biosand filter for E. coli reductions from household drinking water under controlled laboratory and field use conditions. Water Sci Technol 54 :1–7.
-
35
UNDP, 2007. Beyond Scarcity: Power, Poverty and the Global Water Crisis. United Nations Development Programme: Human Development Report 2007. New York: United Nations Development Programme.
| Past two years | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 36 | 36 | 9 |
| Full Text Views | 422 | 83 | 0 |
| PDF Downloads | 193 | 25 | 0 |
Microbiological Effectiveness and Cost of Disinfecting Water by Boiling in Semi-urban India
Thomas Clasen
Thomas Clasen
Department of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom; Centre for Global Health Research, St Michael’s Hospital, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada; and Hindustan Unilever Research Centre, Unilever Research India, Bangalore, India
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Catherine McLaughlin
Catherine McLaughlin
Department of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom; Centre for Global Health Research, St Michael’s Hospital, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada; and Hindustan Unilever Research Centre, Unilever Research India, Bangalore, India
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Neeru Nayaar
Neeru Nayaar
Department of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom; Centre for Global Health Research, St Michael’s Hospital, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada; and Hindustan Unilever Research Centre, Unilever Research India, Bangalore, India
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Sophie Boisson
Sophie Boisson
Department of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom; Centre for Global Health Research, St Michael’s Hospital, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada; and Hindustan Unilever Research Centre, Unilever Research India, Bangalore, India
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Romesh Gupta
Romesh Gupta
Department of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom; Centre for Global Health Research, St Michael’s Hospital, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada; and Hindustan Unilever Research Centre, Unilever Research India, Bangalore, India
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Dolly Desai
Dolly Desai
Department of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom; Centre for Global Health Research, St Michael’s Hospital, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada; and Hindustan Unilever Research Centre, Unilever Research India, Bangalore, India
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Nimish Shah
Nimish Shah
Department of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom; Centre for Global Health Research, St Michael’s Hospital, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada; and Hindustan Unilever Research Centre, Unilever Research India, Bangalore, India
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Despite shortcomings, boiling is the most common means of treating water at home and the benchmark against which emerging point-of-use water treatment approaches are measured. In a 5-month study, we assessed the microbiological effectiveness and cost of the practice among 218 self-reported boilers relying on unprotected water supplies. Boiling was associated with a 99% reduction in geometric mean fecal coliforms (FCs; P < 0.001). Despite high levels of fecal contamination in source water, 59.6% of stored drinking water samples from self-reported boilers met the World Health Organization standard for safe drinking water (0 FC/100mL), and 5.7% were between 1 and 10 FC/100 mL. Nevertheless, 40.4% of stored drinking water samples were positive for FCs, with 25.1% exceeding 100 FC/100 mL. The estimated monthly fuel cost for boiling was INR 43.8 (US$0.88) for households using liquid petroleum gas and INR 34.7 (US$0.69) for households using wood.
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1
WHO, 2005. World Health Report 2005: Make Every Mother and Child Count. Geneva: World Health Organization.
-
2
NCMH, 2005. Burden of Disease in India. New Delhi: National Commission on Macroeconomics and Health, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India.
-
3
WHO/UNICEF, 2006. Meeting the MDG Drinking Water and Sanitation Target: The Urban and Rural Challenge of the Decade. Geneva: The World Health Organization and the United Nations Children’s Fund.
-
4
Fewtrell L, Kaufmann R, Kay D, Enanoria W, Haller L, Colford J, 2005. Water, sanitation, and hygiene interventions to reduce diarrhoea in less developed countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Infect Dis 5 :42–52.
-
5
Clasen T, Roberts I, Rabie T, Schmidt W-P, Cairncross S, 2006. Interventions to Improve Water Quality for Preventing Diarrhoea (Cochrane Review). The Cochrane Library. Oxford: Update Software.
-
6
Sobsey MD, 2002. Managing Water in the Home: Accelerated Health Gains From Improved Water Supply. Geneva: The World Health Organization.
-
7
Abadie Rosa MG, 2007. Re-assessing boiling as a mean of treating drinking water: an analysis in relation to alternative available options. MSc dissertation, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, UK.
-
8
Block SS, 2001. Disinfection, Sterilization and Preservation. Fifth edition. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
-
9
Iijima Y, Karama M, Oundo JO, Honda T, 2001. Prevention of bacterial diarrhoea by pasteurization of drinking water in Kenya. Microbiol Immunol 45 :413–416.
-
10
Gilman RH, Skillicorn P, 1985. Boiling of drinking-water: can a fuel-scarce community afford it? Bull WHO 63 :157–163.
-
11
CDC, 2005. Emergency Preparedness & Response: Emergency Water Storage and Purification. Atlanta, GA: US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
-
12
Davis J, Lambert R, 2002. Engineering in Emergencies. London: Intermediate Technology Publications.
-
13
Nnochiri E, 1975. Medical Microbiology in the Tropics. London: Oxford University Press.
-
14
WHO, 2004. Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality. Third edition, vol. 1. Gneva: World Health Organization.
-
15
Brick T, Primrose B, Chandrasekhar R, Roy S, Muliyil J, Kang G, 2004. Water contamination in urban south India: household storage practices and their implications for water safety and enteric infections. Int J Hyg Environ Health 207 :473–480.
-
16
Wright J, Gundry S, Conroy R, 2003. Household drinking water in developing countries: a systematic review of microbiological contamination between source and point-of-use. Trop Med Int Health 9 :106–117.
-
17
Luby SP, Syed AH, Atiullah N, Faizan MK, Fisher-Hoch S, 1999. Limited effectiveness of home drinking water purification efforts in Karachi, Pakistan. Int J Infect Dis 4 :3–7.
-
18
Gupta SK, Suantio A, Gray A, Widyastuti E, Jain N, Rolos R, Hoekstra RM, Quick R, 2007. Factors associated with E. coli contamination of household drinking water among tsunami and earthquake survivors, Indonesia. Am J Trop Med Hyg 76 :1158–1162.
-
19
Rehfuess E, Mehta S, Pruss-Ustun A, 2006. Assessing household solid fuel use: multiple implications for the Millennium Development Goals. Environ Health Perspect 114 :373–378.
-
20
Biran A, Abbot J, Mace R, 2004. Families and firewood: the costs and benefits of children in firewood collection and use in two rural communities in Sub-Saharan Africa. Hum Ecol 32 :1–25.
-
21
Smith KR, 2002. Indoor air pollution in developing countries: recommendations for research. Indoor Air 12 :198–207.
-
22
Rossi LA, Braga EC, Barruffini RC, Carvalho EC, 1998. Childhood burn injuries: circumstances of occurrences and their prevention in Ribeirao Preto, Brazil. Burns 24 :416–419.
-
23
DHS, 2006. Demographic and Health Survey, India 2005–2006. Available at: http://www.measuredhs.com/pubs/pdf/FRIND3/02Chapter02.pdf. Accessed November 13, 2007.
-
24
Clasen T, Do Houng T, Boisson S, Shippin O, 2008. Microbiological effectiveness and cost of boiling to disinfect water in rural Vietnam. Environ Sci Technol. 42 :4255–4260.
-
25
APHA, 2001. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater. Twenty-first edition. Washington, DC: American Public Health Association/American Water Works Association/Water Environment Federation.
-
26
LeChevallier MW, Jakanoski PE, Camper AK, McFeters GA, 1984. Evaluation of m-T7 agar as a fecal coliform medium. Appl Environ Microbiol 48 :371–375.
-
27
McLaughlin C, 2006. Costs of treating drinking water by boiling in Virar, Vasai and Nalasopara, India. MSc dissertation, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, UK.
-
28
Shankar KK, 2007. Government extends kerosene, LPG subsidy till 2010. The India Express. Available at: http://www.indianexpress.com/story/227425.html. Accessed October 22, 2007.
-
29
Labour Bureau, 2005. Wage Rates in Rural India for the Year 2004–2005. New Delhi: Labour Bureau, Government of India.
-
30
WHO, 2007. Combating Waterborne Disease at the Household Level. Geneva: World Health Organization.
-
31
Clasen T, Haller L, 2007. Water Quality Interventions to Prevent Diarrhoea: Cost and Cost Effectiveness. Geneva: World Health Organisation.
-
32
Kirchhoff LV, McClelland KE, Do Carmo Pinho M, Araujo JG, De Sousa MA, Guerrant RL, 1985. Feasibility and efficacy of in-home caer chlorination in rural North-eastern Brazil. J Hygiene (Lond) 94 :173–180.
-
33
Clasen T, Boisson S, 2006. Household-based ceramic water filters for the treatment of drinking water in disaster response: an assessment of a pilot programme in the Dominican Republic. Water Practice Tech 1 :2.
-
34
Stauber CE, Elliott MA, Koksai F, Ortiz GM, DiGiano FA, Sobsey MD, 2006. Characterisation of the biosand filter for E. coli reductions from household drinking water under controlled laboratory and field use conditions. Water Sci Technol 54 :1–7.
-
35
UNDP, 2007. Beyond Scarcity: Power, Poverty and the Global Water Crisis. United Nations Development Programme: Human Development Report 2007. New York: United Nations Development Programme.
| Past two years | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 36 | 36 | 9 |
| Full Text Views | 422 | 83 | 0 |
| PDF Downloads | 193 | 25 | 0 |