Author:
- INTRODUCTION
- PATIENTS AND METHODS
- RESULTS
- Descriptive results.
- Treatment outcome in P. falciparum mono-infections.
- Treatment outcome in nonfalciparum malaria or in malaria with mixed species.
- Impact of treatment on vomiting, parasite, and fever clearance and gametocyte carriage.
- Safety evaluation.
- ACT treatment and molecular markers of resistance to the partner drug.
- DISCUSSION
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1
Shretta R, Omumbo J, Rapuoda B, Snow RW, 2000. Using evidence to change antimalarial drug policy in Kenya. Trop Med Int Health 5: 755–764.
-
2
Nsimba B, Jafari-Guemouri S, Malonga DA, Mouata AM, Kiori J, Louya F, Yocka D, Malanda M, Durand R, Le Bras J, 2005. Epidemiology of drug-resistant malaria in Republic of Congo: using molecular evidence for monitoring antimalarial drug resistance combined with assessment of antimalarial drug use. Trop Med Int Health 10 :1030–1037.
-
3
Nsimba SE, Rimoy GH, 2005. Self-medication with chloroquine in a rural district of Tanzania: a therapeutic challenge for any future malaria treatment policy change in the country. J Clin Pharm Ther 30 :515–519.
-
4
Trape JF, Pison G, Preziosi MP, Enel C, Desgrées du Loû A, Delaunay V, Samb B, Lagarde E, Molez JF, Simondon F, 1998. Impact of chloroquine resistance on malaria mortality. CR Acad Sci Paris, Ser III, Life Sci 321 :689–697.
-
5
Djimdé A, Doumbo OK, Steketee RW, Plowe CV, 2001. Application of a molecular marker for surveillance of chloroquine-resistant falciparum malaria. Lancet 358 :890–891.
-
6
Coleman PG, Morel C, Shillcutt S, Goodman C, Mills AJ, 2004. A threshold analysis of the cost-effectiveness of artemisinin-based combination therapies in sub-Saharan Africa. Am J Trop Med Hyg 71 (Suppl 2):196–204.
-
7
Laxminarayan R, 2004. ACT now or later? Economics of malaria resistance. Am J Trop Med Hyg 71 (Suppl 2):187–195.
-
8
Mutabingwa TK, 2005. Artemisinin-based combination therapies (ACTs): best hope for malaria treatment but inaccessible to the needy! Acta Trop 95 :305–315.
-
9
Rathbun RC, Lockhart SM, Stephens JR, 2006. Current HIV treatment guidelines—an overview. Curr Pharm Des 12 :1045–1063.
-
10
Halim H, Rasyid A, Ahmad Z, 2006. Evaluation of four-years hospital implementation of DOTS strategy (1998–2002). Acta Med Indones 38 :130–134.
-
11
White NJ, 1994. Artemisinin: current status. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 88 (Suppl 1):S3–S4.
-
12
Hien TT, White NJ, 1993. Qinghaosu [Review]. Lancet 341 : 603–608 [see comments and references therein].
-
13
Price RN, Nosten F, Luxemburger C, Kham A, Brockman A, Chongsuphajaisiddhi T, White NJ, 1995. Artesunate versus artemether in combination with mefloquine for the treatment of multidrug-resistant falciparum malaria. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 89 :523–527.
-
14
Adjuik M, Babiker A, Garner P, Olliaro P, Taylor W, White N, 2004. Artesunate combinations for treatment of malaria: meta-analysis. Lancet 363 :9–17.
-
15
Adjuik M, Agnamey P, Babiker A, Borrmann S, Brasseur P, Cisse M, Cobelens F, Diallo S, Faucher JF, Garner P, Gikunda S, Kremsner PG, Krishna S, Lell B, Loolpapit M, Matsiegui PB, Missinou MA, Mwanza J, Ntoumi F, Olliaro P, Osimbo P, Rezbach P, Some E, Taylor WR, 2002. Amodiaquine–artesunate versus amodiaquine for uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria in African children: a randomised, multicentre trial. Lancet 359 :1365–1372.
-
16
von Seidlein L, Milligan P, Pinder M, Bojang K, Anyalebechi C, Gosling R, Coleman R, Ude JI, Sadiq A, Duraisingh M, Warhurst D, Alloueche A, Targett G, McAdam K, Greenwood B, Walraven G, Olliaro P, Doherty T, 2000. Efficacy of artesunate plus pyrimethamine–sulphadoxine for uncomplicated malaria in Gambian children: a double-blind, randomised, controlled trial. Lancet 355 :352–357.
-
17
Koram KA, Abuaku B, Duah N, Quashie N, 2005. Comparative efficacy of antimalarial drugs including ACTs in the treatment of uncomplicated malaria among children under 5 years in Ghana. Acta Trop 95 :194–203.
-
18
Swarthout TD, van den Broek IV, Kayembe G, Montgomery J, Pota H, Roper C, 2006. Artesunate + amodiaquine and artesunate + sulphadoxine–pyrimethamine for treatment of uncomplicated malaria in Democratic Republic of Congo: a clinical trial with determination of sulphadoxine and pyrimethamine-resistant haplotypes. Trop Med Int Health 11 :1503–1511.
-
19
Mulenga M, VangGeertruyden JP, Mwananyanda L, Chalwe V, Moerman F, Chilengi R, Van Overmeir C, Dujardin JC, D’Alessandro U, 2006. Safety and efficacy of lumefantrine-artemether (Coartem) for the treatment of uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria in Zambian adults. Malar J 5 :73.
-
20
Sagara I, Dicko A, Djimdé A, Guindo O, Kone M, Tolo Y, Thera MA, Sogoba M, Fofana M, Ouattara A, Sissoko M, Jansen HF, Doumbo OK, 2006. A randomized trial of artesunate-sulfamethoxypyrazine–pyrimethamine versus artemether–lumefantrine for the treatment of uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria in Mali. Am J Trop Med Hyg 75 :630–636.
-
21
Bouvier P, Rougemont A, Breslow N, Doumbo O, Delley V, Dicko A, Diakite M, Mauris A, Robert CF, 1997. Seasonality and malaria in a west African village: does high parasite density predict fever incidence? Am J Epidemiol 145 :850–857.
-
22
WHO, 1996. Assessment of therapeutic efficacy of antimalarial drugs for uncomplicated falciparum malaria in areas with intense transmission. Geneva: World Health Organization, Division of Control of Tropical Diseases.
-
23
WHO, 2003. Assessment of therapeutic efficacy of antimalarial drugs for uncomplicated falciparum malaria. WHO/HTM/RBM/2003.50. Geneva: World Health Organization.
-
24
Snounou G, Viriyakosol S, Zhu XP, Jarra W, Pinheiro L, Do Rosario VE, Brown KN, 1993. High sensitivity of detection of human malaria parasites by the use of nested polymerase chain reaction. Mol Biochem Parasitol 61 :315–320.
-
25
Ranford-Cartwright LC, Taylor J, Umasunthar T, Taylor LH, Babiker HA, Lell B, Schmidt-Ott JR, Lehman LG, Walliker D, Kremsner PG, 1997. Molecular analysis of recrudescent parasites in a Plasmodium falciparum drug efficacy trial in Gabon. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 91 :719–724.
-
26
Djimdé A, Doumbo OK, Cortese JF, Kayentao K, Doumbo S, Diourte Y, Dicko A, Su XZ, Nomura T, Fidock DA, Wellems TE, Plowe CV, Coulibaly D, 2001. A molecular marker for chloroquine-resistant falciparum malaria. N Engl J Med 344 :257–263.
-
27
Diourte Y, Djimdé A, Doumbo OK, Sagara I, Coulibaly A, Dicko A, Diallo M, Diakite M, Cortese JF, Plowe CV, 1999. Pyrimethamine–sulfadoxine efficacy and selection for mutations in Plasmodium falciparum dihydrofolate reductase and dihydropteroate synthase in Mali. Am J Trop Med Hyg 60 :475–478.
-
28
Bousema JT, Gouagna LC, Meutstege AM, Okech BE, Akim NI, Githure JI, Beier JC, Sauerwein RW, 2003. Treatment failure of pyrimethamine–sulphadoxine and induction of Plasmodium falciparum gametocytaemia in children in western Kenya. Trop Med Int Health 8 :427–430.
-
29
Mbaisi A, Liyala P, Eyase F, Achilla R, Akala H, Wangui J, Mwangi J, Osuna F, Alam U, Smoak BL, Davis JM, Kyle DE, Coldren RL, Mason C, Waters NC, 2004. Drug susceptibility and genetic evaluation of Plasmodium falciparum isolates obtained in four distinct geographical regions of Kenya. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 48 :3598–3601.
-
30
Cox MJ, Kum DE, Tavul L, Narara A, Raiko A, Baisor M, Alpers MP, Medley GF, Day KP, 1994. Dynamics of malaria parasitaemia associated with febrile illness in children from a rural area of Madang, Papua New Guinea. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 88 :191–197.
-
31
de Radigusè X, Diallo KI, Diallo M, Ngwakum PA, Maiga H, Djimdé A, Sacko M, Doumbo O, Guthmann JP, 2006. Efficacy of chloroquine and sulfadoxine/pyrimethamine for the treatment of uncomplicated falciparum malaria in Koumantou, Mali. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 100 :1013–1018.
-
32
Watkins WM, Mosobo M, 1993. Treatment of Plasmodium falciparum malaria with pyrimethamine–sulfadoxine: selective pressure for resistance is a function of long elimination half-life. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 87 :75–78.
-
33
Viriyakosol S, Siripoon N, Petcharapirat C, Petcharapirat P, Jarra W, Brown KN, Snounou G, 1995. Genotyping of Plasmodium falciparum isolates by the polymerase chain reaction and potential uses in epidemiological studies. Bull World Health Organ 73 :85–95.
-
34
Felger I, Tavul L, Beck HP, 1993. Plasmodium falciparum: a rapid technique for genotyping the merozoite surface protein 2. Exp Parasitol 77 :372–375.
-
35
Mwangi JM, Omar SA, Ranford-Cartwright LC, 2006. Comparison of microsatellite and antigen-coding loci for differentiating recrudescing Plasmodium falciparum infections from reinfections in Kenya. Int J Parasitol 36 :329–336.
-
36
van den Broek I, Kitz C, Al Attas S, Libama F, Balasegaram M, Guthmann JP, 2006. Efficacy of three artemisinin combination therapies for the treatment of uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria in the Republic of Congo. Malar J 5 :113.
-
37
O’Neill PM, Harrison AC, Storr RC, Hawley SR, Ward SA, Park BK, 1994. The effect of fluorine substitution on the metabolism and antimalarial activity of amodiaquine. J Med Chem 37 :1362–1370.
-
38
Holmgren G, Gil JP, Ferreira PM, Veiga MI, Obonyo CO, Bjrköman A, 2006. Amodiaquine resistant Plasmodium falciparum malaria in vivo is associated with selection of pfcrt 76T and pfmdr1 86Y. Infect Genet Evol 6 :309–314.
-
39
Zongo I, Dorsey G, Rouamba N, Tinto H, Dokomajilar C, Guiguemde RT, Rosenthal PJ, Ouedraogo JB, 2007. Artemether–lumefantrine versus amodiaquine plus sulfadoxine–pyrimethamine for uncomplicated falciparum malaria in Burkina Faso: a randomised non-inferiority trial. Lancet 369 :491–498.
-
40
Mrtenssonå A, Strömberg J, Sisowath C, Msellem MI, Gil JP, Montgomery SM, Olliaro P, Ali AS, Bjrkman A, 2005. Effiöcacy of artesunate plus amodiaquine versus that of artemether–lumefantrine for the treatment of uncomplicated childhood Plasmodium falciparum malaria in Zanzibar, Tanzania. Clin Infect Dis 41 :1079–1086.
-
41
Nosten F, van Vugt M, Price R, Luxemburger C, Thway KL, Brockman A, McGready R, ter Kuile F, Looareesuwan S, White NJ, 2000. Effects of artesunate–mefloquine combination on incidence of Plasmodium falciparum malaria and mefloquine resistance in western Thailand: a prospective study. Lancet 356 :297–302.
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Efficacy, Safety, and Selection of Molecular Markers of Drug Resistance by Two ACTs in Mali
Abdoulaye A. Djimdé
Abdoulaye A. Djimdé
Malaria Research and Training Center, Department of Epidemiology of Parasitic Diseases, Faculty of Medicine, Pharmacy and Odonto-Stomatology, University of Bamako, Mali
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Bakary Fofana
Bakary Fofana
Malaria Research and Training Center, Department of Epidemiology of Parasitic Diseases, Faculty of Medicine, Pharmacy and Odonto-Stomatology, University of Bamako, Mali
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Issaka Sagara
Issaka Sagara
Malaria Research and Training Center, Department of Epidemiology of Parasitic Diseases, Faculty of Medicine, Pharmacy and Odonto-Stomatology, University of Bamako, Mali
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Bakary Sidibe
Bakary Sidibe
Malaria Research and Training Center, Department of Epidemiology of Parasitic Diseases, Faculty of Medicine, Pharmacy and Odonto-Stomatology, University of Bamako, Mali
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Sekou Toure
Sekou Toure
Malaria Research and Training Center, Department of Epidemiology of Parasitic Diseases, Faculty of Medicine, Pharmacy and Odonto-Stomatology, University of Bamako, Mali
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Demba Dembele
Demba Dembele
Malaria Research and Training Center, Department of Epidemiology of Parasitic Diseases, Faculty of Medicine, Pharmacy and Odonto-Stomatology, University of Bamako, Mali
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Souleymane Dama
Souleymane Dama
Malaria Research and Training Center, Department of Epidemiology of Parasitic Diseases, Faculty of Medicine, Pharmacy and Odonto-Stomatology, University of Bamako, Mali
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Dinkorma Ouologuem
Dinkorma Ouologuem
Malaria Research and Training Center, Department of Epidemiology of Parasitic Diseases, Faculty of Medicine, Pharmacy and Odonto-Stomatology, University of Bamako, Mali
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Alassane Dicko
Alassane Dicko
Malaria Research and Training Center, Department of Epidemiology of Parasitic Diseases, Faculty of Medicine, Pharmacy and Odonto-Stomatology, University of Bamako, Mali
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Ogobara K. Doumbo
Ogobara K. Doumbo
Malaria Research and Training Center, Department of Epidemiology of Parasitic Diseases, Faculty of Medicine, Pharmacy and Odonto-Stomatology, University of Bamako, Mali
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We conducted a randomized single-blinded trial comparing the efficacy and safety of artesunate (AS) + amodiaquine (AQ, 3 days) versus AS (3 days) + sulfadoxine–pyrimethamine (SP, single dose) versus AS monotherapy (5 days) in Southern Mali. Uncomplicated malaria cases were followed for 28 days. Molecular markers of drug resistance were determined. After identification of recrudescences by genotyping, both artemisinin-based combination therapies (ACTs) reached nearly 100% efficacy at Day 14 and Day 28 versus 98.3% and 96.5% for AS, respectively (P > 0.05). AS + SP significantly selected DHFR and DHPS mutations associated with sulfadoxine and pyrimethamine resistance (P < 0.001), and AS + AQ equally selected PfCRT and PfMDR1 point mutations associated with chloroquine and AQ resistance (P < 0.001). No significant adverse event attributable to any of the study drugs was found. The ACTs were efficacious and safe, but the selection of markers for resistance to the partner drugs raises concerns over their lifespan in areas of intense malaria transmission.
Author Notes
- INTRODUCTION
- PATIENTS AND METHODS
- RESULTS
- Descriptive results.
- Treatment outcome in P. falciparum mono-infections.
- Treatment outcome in nonfalciparum malaria or in malaria with mixed species.
- Impact of treatment on vomiting, parasite, and fever clearance and gametocyte carriage.
- Safety evaluation.
- ACT treatment and molecular markers of resistance to the partner drug.
- DISCUSSION
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1
Shretta R, Omumbo J, Rapuoda B, Snow RW, 2000. Using evidence to change antimalarial drug policy in Kenya. Trop Med Int Health 5: 755–764.
-
2
Nsimba B, Jafari-Guemouri S, Malonga DA, Mouata AM, Kiori J, Louya F, Yocka D, Malanda M, Durand R, Le Bras J, 2005. Epidemiology of drug-resistant malaria in Republic of Congo: using molecular evidence for monitoring antimalarial drug resistance combined with assessment of antimalarial drug use. Trop Med Int Health 10 :1030–1037.
-
3
Nsimba SE, Rimoy GH, 2005. Self-medication with chloroquine in a rural district of Tanzania: a therapeutic challenge for any future malaria treatment policy change in the country. J Clin Pharm Ther 30 :515–519.
-
4
Trape JF, Pison G, Preziosi MP, Enel C, Desgrées du Loû A, Delaunay V, Samb B, Lagarde E, Molez JF, Simondon F, 1998. Impact of chloroquine resistance on malaria mortality. CR Acad Sci Paris, Ser III, Life Sci 321 :689–697.
-
5
Djimdé A, Doumbo OK, Steketee RW, Plowe CV, 2001. Application of a molecular marker for surveillance of chloroquine-resistant falciparum malaria. Lancet 358 :890–891.
-
6
Coleman PG, Morel C, Shillcutt S, Goodman C, Mills AJ, 2004. A threshold analysis of the cost-effectiveness of artemisinin-based combination therapies in sub-Saharan Africa. Am J Trop Med Hyg 71 (Suppl 2):196–204.
-
7
Laxminarayan R, 2004. ACT now or later? Economics of malaria resistance. Am J Trop Med Hyg 71 (Suppl 2):187–195.
-
8
Mutabingwa TK, 2005. Artemisinin-based combination therapies (ACTs): best hope for malaria treatment but inaccessible to the needy! Acta Trop 95 :305–315.
-
9
Rathbun RC, Lockhart SM, Stephens JR, 2006. Current HIV treatment guidelines—an overview. Curr Pharm Des 12 :1045–1063.
-
10
Halim H, Rasyid A, Ahmad Z, 2006. Evaluation of four-years hospital implementation of DOTS strategy (1998–2002). Acta Med Indones 38 :130–134.
-
11
White NJ, 1994. Artemisinin: current status. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 88 (Suppl 1):S3–S4.
-
12
Hien TT, White NJ, 1993. Qinghaosu [Review]. Lancet 341 : 603–608 [see comments and references therein].
-
13
Price RN, Nosten F, Luxemburger C, Kham A, Brockman A, Chongsuphajaisiddhi T, White NJ, 1995. Artesunate versus artemether in combination with mefloquine for the treatment of multidrug-resistant falciparum malaria. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 89 :523–527.
-
14
Adjuik M, Babiker A, Garner P, Olliaro P, Taylor W, White N, 2004. Artesunate combinations for treatment of malaria: meta-analysis. Lancet 363 :9–17.
-
15
Adjuik M, Agnamey P, Babiker A, Borrmann S, Brasseur P, Cisse M, Cobelens F, Diallo S, Faucher JF, Garner P, Gikunda S, Kremsner PG, Krishna S, Lell B, Loolpapit M, Matsiegui PB, Missinou MA, Mwanza J, Ntoumi F, Olliaro P, Osimbo P, Rezbach P, Some E, Taylor WR, 2002. Amodiaquine–artesunate versus amodiaquine for uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria in African children: a randomised, multicentre trial. Lancet 359 :1365–1372.
-
16
von Seidlein L, Milligan P, Pinder M, Bojang K, Anyalebechi C, Gosling R, Coleman R, Ude JI, Sadiq A, Duraisingh M, Warhurst D, Alloueche A, Targett G, McAdam K, Greenwood B, Walraven G, Olliaro P, Doherty T, 2000. Efficacy of artesunate plus pyrimethamine–sulphadoxine for uncomplicated malaria in Gambian children: a double-blind, randomised, controlled trial. Lancet 355 :352–357.
-
17
Koram KA, Abuaku B, Duah N, Quashie N, 2005. Comparative efficacy of antimalarial drugs including ACTs in the treatment of uncomplicated malaria among children under 5 years in Ghana. Acta Trop 95 :194–203.
-
18
Swarthout TD, van den Broek IV, Kayembe G, Montgomery J, Pota H, Roper C, 2006. Artesunate + amodiaquine and artesunate + sulphadoxine–pyrimethamine for treatment of uncomplicated malaria in Democratic Republic of Congo: a clinical trial with determination of sulphadoxine and pyrimethamine-resistant haplotypes. Trop Med Int Health 11 :1503–1511.
-
19
Mulenga M, VangGeertruyden JP, Mwananyanda L, Chalwe V, Moerman F, Chilengi R, Van Overmeir C, Dujardin JC, D’Alessandro U, 2006. Safety and efficacy of lumefantrine-artemether (Coartem) for the treatment of uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria in Zambian adults. Malar J 5 :73.
-
20
Sagara I, Dicko A, Djimdé A, Guindo O, Kone M, Tolo Y, Thera MA, Sogoba M, Fofana M, Ouattara A, Sissoko M, Jansen HF, Doumbo OK, 2006. A randomized trial of artesunate-sulfamethoxypyrazine–pyrimethamine versus artemether–lumefantrine for the treatment of uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria in Mali. Am J Trop Med Hyg 75 :630–636.
-
21
Bouvier P, Rougemont A, Breslow N, Doumbo O, Delley V, Dicko A, Diakite M, Mauris A, Robert CF, 1997. Seasonality and malaria in a west African village: does high parasite density predict fever incidence? Am J Epidemiol 145 :850–857.
-
22
WHO, 1996. Assessment of therapeutic efficacy of antimalarial drugs for uncomplicated falciparum malaria in areas with intense transmission. Geneva: World Health Organization, Division of Control of Tropical Diseases.
-
23
WHO, 2003. Assessment of therapeutic efficacy of antimalarial drugs for uncomplicated falciparum malaria. WHO/HTM/RBM/2003.50. Geneva: World Health Organization.
-
24
Snounou G, Viriyakosol S, Zhu XP, Jarra W, Pinheiro L, Do Rosario VE, Brown KN, 1993. High sensitivity of detection of human malaria parasites by the use of nested polymerase chain reaction. Mol Biochem Parasitol 61 :315–320.
-
25
Ranford-Cartwright LC, Taylor J, Umasunthar T, Taylor LH, Babiker HA, Lell B, Schmidt-Ott JR, Lehman LG, Walliker D, Kremsner PG, 1997. Molecular analysis of recrudescent parasites in a Plasmodium falciparum drug efficacy trial in Gabon. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 91 :719–724.
-
26
Djimdé A, Doumbo OK, Cortese JF, Kayentao K, Doumbo S, Diourte Y, Dicko A, Su XZ, Nomura T, Fidock DA, Wellems TE, Plowe CV, Coulibaly D, 2001. A molecular marker for chloroquine-resistant falciparum malaria. N Engl J Med 344 :257–263.
-
27
Diourte Y, Djimdé A, Doumbo OK, Sagara I, Coulibaly A, Dicko A, Diallo M, Diakite M, Cortese JF, Plowe CV, 1999. Pyrimethamine–sulfadoxine efficacy and selection for mutations in Plasmodium falciparum dihydrofolate reductase and dihydropteroate synthase in Mali. Am J Trop Med Hyg 60 :475–478.
-
28
Bousema JT, Gouagna LC, Meutstege AM, Okech BE, Akim NI, Githure JI, Beier JC, Sauerwein RW, 2003. Treatment failure of pyrimethamine–sulphadoxine and induction of Plasmodium falciparum gametocytaemia in children in western Kenya. Trop Med Int Health 8 :427–430.
-
29
Mbaisi A, Liyala P, Eyase F, Achilla R, Akala H, Wangui J, Mwangi J, Osuna F, Alam U, Smoak BL, Davis JM, Kyle DE, Coldren RL, Mason C, Waters NC, 2004. Drug susceptibility and genetic evaluation of Plasmodium falciparum isolates obtained in four distinct geographical regions of Kenya. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 48 :3598–3601.
-
30
Cox MJ, Kum DE, Tavul L, Narara A, Raiko A, Baisor M, Alpers MP, Medley GF, Day KP, 1994. Dynamics of malaria parasitaemia associated with febrile illness in children from a rural area of Madang, Papua New Guinea. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 88 :191–197.
-
31
de Radigusè X, Diallo KI, Diallo M, Ngwakum PA, Maiga H, Djimdé A, Sacko M, Doumbo O, Guthmann JP, 2006. Efficacy of chloroquine and sulfadoxine/pyrimethamine for the treatment of uncomplicated falciparum malaria in Koumantou, Mali. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 100 :1013–1018.
-
32
Watkins WM, Mosobo M, 1993. Treatment of Plasmodium falciparum malaria with pyrimethamine–sulfadoxine: selective pressure for resistance is a function of long elimination half-life. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 87 :75–78.
-
33
Viriyakosol S, Siripoon N, Petcharapirat C, Petcharapirat P, Jarra W, Brown KN, Snounou G, 1995. Genotyping of Plasmodium falciparum isolates by the polymerase chain reaction and potential uses in epidemiological studies. Bull World Health Organ 73 :85–95.
-
34
Felger I, Tavul L, Beck HP, 1993. Plasmodium falciparum: a rapid technique for genotyping the merozoite surface protein 2. Exp Parasitol 77 :372–375.
-
35
Mwangi JM, Omar SA, Ranford-Cartwright LC, 2006. Comparison of microsatellite and antigen-coding loci for differentiating recrudescing Plasmodium falciparum infections from reinfections in Kenya. Int J Parasitol 36 :329–336.
-
36
van den Broek I, Kitz C, Al Attas S, Libama F, Balasegaram M, Guthmann JP, 2006. Efficacy of three artemisinin combination therapies for the treatment of uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria in the Republic of Congo. Malar J 5 :113.
-
37
O’Neill PM, Harrison AC, Storr RC, Hawley SR, Ward SA, Park BK, 1994. The effect of fluorine substitution on the metabolism and antimalarial activity of amodiaquine. J Med Chem 37 :1362–1370.
-
38
Holmgren G, Gil JP, Ferreira PM, Veiga MI, Obonyo CO, Bjrköman A, 2006. Amodiaquine resistant Plasmodium falciparum malaria in vivo is associated with selection of pfcrt 76T and pfmdr1 86Y. Infect Genet Evol 6 :309–314.
-
39
Zongo I, Dorsey G, Rouamba N, Tinto H, Dokomajilar C, Guiguemde RT, Rosenthal PJ, Ouedraogo JB, 2007. Artemether–lumefantrine versus amodiaquine plus sulfadoxine–pyrimethamine for uncomplicated falciparum malaria in Burkina Faso: a randomised non-inferiority trial. Lancet 369 :491–498.
-
40
Mrtenssonå A, Strömberg J, Sisowath C, Msellem MI, Gil JP, Montgomery SM, Olliaro P, Ali AS, Bjrkman A, 2005. Effiöcacy of artesunate plus amodiaquine versus that of artemether–lumefantrine for the treatment of uncomplicated childhood Plasmodium falciparum malaria in Zanzibar, Tanzania. Clin Infect Dis 41 :1079–1086.
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