- INTRODUCTION
- MATERIALS AND METHODS
- RESULTS
- Isozyme analysis.
- Transmission assays.
- Comparison between epizootic and enzootic IE genotypes.
- Geographic comparison of susceptibility to IE viruses.
- Comparison of Ps. columbiae f. columbiae versus Ps. columbiae f. toltecum in their susceptibilities to IE viruses.
- Comparison of Ps. columbiae f. columbiae versus Ps. columbiae f. toltecum in their susceptibilities to IAB virus.
- DISCUSSION
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1
Weaver SC, Ferro C, Barrera R, Boshell J, Navarro JC, 2004. Venezuelan equine encephalitis. Annu Rev Entomol 49 :141–174.
-
2
Johnson KM, Martin DH, 1974. Venezuelan equine encephalitis. Adv Vet Sci Comp Med 18 :79–116.
-
3
Walton TE, Grayson MA, 1989. Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis. Monath TP, ed. The Arboviruses: Epidemiology and Ecology. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 203–231.
-
4
Groot H, 1972. The health and economic impact of Venezuelan equine encephalitis (VEE). Proceedings of the Workshop-Symposium on Venezuelan Encephalitis Virus. Washington, DC: Pan American Health Organization, 7.
-
5
Scherer WF, 1972. History and importance of VE virus. Proceedings of the Workshop-Symposium on Venezuelan Encephalitis Virus. Washington, DC: Pan American Health Organization, 26.
-
6
Kubes V, 1972. Epizootic data. Proceedings of the Workshop-Symposium on Venezuelan Encephalitis Virus. Washington, DC: Pan American Health Organization, 18.
-
7
Kubes V, Rios FA, 1939. The causative agent of infectious equine encephalomyelitis in Venezuela. Science 90 :20–21.
-
8
Beck CE, Wyckoff RW, 1938. Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis. Science 88 :530.
-
9
Oberste MS, Fraire M, Navarro R, Zepeda C, Zarate ML, Ludwig GV, Kondig JF, Weaver SC, Smith JF, Rico-Hesse R, 1998. Association of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus subtype IE with two equine epizootics in Mexico. Am J Trop Med Hyg 59 :100–107.
-
10
Sudia WD, Newhouse VF, Beadle ID, Miller DL, Johnston JG Jr, Young R, Calisher CH, Maness K, 1975. Epidemic Venezuelan equine encephalitis in North America in 1971: vector studies. Am J Epidemiol 101 :17–35.
-
11
Sudia WD, Lord RD, Newhouse VF, Miller DL, Kissling RE, 1971. Vector-host studies of an epizootic of Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis in Guatemala, 1969. Am J Epidemiol 93 :137–143.
-
12
Sellers RF, Bergold GH, Suarez OM, Morales A, 1965. Investigations during Venezuelan equine encephalitis outbreaks in Venezuela, 1962–1964. Am J Trop Med Hyg 14 :460–469.
-
13
Sudia WD, Newhouse VF, Henderson BE, 1971. Experimental infection of horses with three strains of Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis virus. II. Experimental vector studies. Am J Epidemiol 93 :206–211.
-
14
Scherer WF, Dickerman RW, Ordonez JV, 1970. Discovery and geographic distribution of Venezuelan encephalitis virus in Guatemala, Honduras, and British Honduras during 1965–68, and its possible movement to Central America and Mexico. Am J Trop Med Hyg 19 :703–711.
-
15
Ortiz DI, Anishchenko M, Weaver SC, 2005. Susceptibility of Psorophora confinnis (Diptera: Culicidae) to infection with epizootic (subtype IC) and enzootic (subtype ID) Venezuelan Equine encephalitis viruses. J Med Entomol 42 :857–863.
-
16
Rico-Hesse R, Weaver SC, de Siger J, Medina G, Salas RA, 1995. Emergence of a new epidemic/epizootic Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus in South America. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 92 :5278–5281.
-
17
Rivas F, Diaz LA, Cardenas VM, Daza E, Bruzon L, Alcala A, de la Hoz O, Caceres FM, Aristizabal G, Martinez JW, Revelo D, de la Hoz F, Boshell J, Camacho T, Calderon L, Olano VA, Villarreal LI, Roselli D, Alvarez G, Ludwig G, Tsai T, 1997. Epidemic Venezuelan equine encephalitis in La Guajira, Colombia, 1995. J Infect Dis 175 :828–832.
-
18
Weaver SC, Salas R, Rico-Hesse R, Ludwig GV, Oberste MS, Boshell J, Tesh RB, 1996. Re-emergence of epidemic Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis in South America. VEE Study Group. Lancet 348 :436–440.
-
19
Howard L, Dyar H, Knab F, 1917. Mosquitoes of North and Central America and the West Indies. Washington, DC: Carnegie Institute of Washington Publication.
-
20
Aitken T, 1940. The genus Psorophora in California. Revista Entomol 11 :672–682.
-
21
Dyar H, Knab F, 1906. Diagnosis of new species of mosquitoes. Proc Biol Soc Wash 19 :133–142.
-
22
Carpenter S, LaCasse W, 1955. Mosquitoes of North America (North of Mexico). Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
-
23
Bickley W, 1984. Notes on the Psorophora confinnis complex. Mosq Systematics 16 :162–167.
-
24
Ruiz-Garcia M, Ramirez D, Bello F, Alvarez D, 2003. Psorophora columbiae and Psorophora toltecum (Diptera: Culicidae) Colombian populations cannot be differentiated by isoenzymes. Genet Mol Res 2 :229–259.
-
25
Ortiz DI, Weaver SC, 2004. Susceptibility of Ochlerotatus taeniorhynchus (Diptera: Culicidae) to infection with epizootic (subtype IC) and enzootic (subtype ID) Venezuelan equine encephalitis viruses: evidence for epizootic strain adaptation. J Med Entomol 41 :987–993.
-
26
Steiner W, Joslyn D, 1978. Electrophoretic techniques for the genetic study of mosquitoes. Mosq News 39 :25–54.
-
27
Lanzaro G, Narang S, Seawtight J, 1990. Speciation in an anopheline mosquito: enzyme polymorphism and the genetic structure of populations. Ann Entomol Soc Am 83 :578–585.
-
28
Gargan TP 2nd, Bailey CL, Higbee GA, Gad A, El Said S, 1983. The effect of laboratory colonization on the vector-pathogen interactions of Egyptian Culex pipiens and Rift Valley fever virus. Am J Trop Med Hyg 32 :1154–1163.
-
29
Turell MJ, Gargan TP 2nd, Bailey CL, 1984. Replication and dissemination of Rift Valley fever virus in Culex pipiens. Am J Trop Med Hyg 33 :176–181.
-
30
Weaver SC, Scott TW, Lorenz LH, 1990. Patterns of eastern equine encephalomyelitis virus infection in Culiseta melanura (Diptera: Culicidae). J Med Entomol 27 :878–891.
-
31
Lanzaro G, 1997. Genetics of the Mosquito Vector of Epidemic Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis. Advanced Research Program. College Station, TX: Texas A&M University.
-
32
Belkin J, Heinemann S, Page WA, 1970. Mosquito Studies (Diptera, Culicidae). XXI. The Culicidae of Jamaica. Contributions of the American Entomological Institute 6 :1–450.
-
33
Clemens A, 1999. The Biology of Mosquitoes. Cambridge, United Kingdom: CABI Publishing.
-
34
Mitchell CJ, Monath TP, Sabattini MS, Christensen HA, Darsie RF Jr, Jakob WL, Daffner JF, 1987. Host-feeding patterns of Argentine mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) collected during and after an epizootic of western equine encephalitis. J Med Entomol 24 :260–267.
-
35
Edman JD, 1971. Host-feeding patterns of Florida mosquitoes. I. Aedes, Anopheles, Coquillettidia, Mansonia and Psorophora. J Med Entomol 8 :687–695.
-
36
Whitehead F, 1951. Host preferences of Psorophora confinnis and Ps. discolor. J Econ Entomol 44 :1019.
-
37
Bishop F, 1933. Mosquitoes kill livestock. Science 77 :115–116.
-
38
Edman JD, Downe AER, 1964. Host-blood sources and multiple-feeding of mosquitoes in Kansas. Mosq News 24 :154–160.
-
39
Estrada-Franco JG, Navarro-Lopez R, Freier JE, Cordova D, Clements T, Moncayo A, Kang W, Gomez-Hernandez C, Rodriguez-Dominguez G, Ludwig GV, Weaver SC, 2004. Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus, southern Mexico. Emerg Infect Dis 10 :2113–2121.
-
40
Turell MJ, Jones JW, Sardelis MR, Dohm DJ, Coleman RE, Watts DM, Fernandez R, Calampa C, Klein TA, 2000. Vector competence of Peruvian mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) for epizootic and enzootic strains of Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis virus. J Med Entomol 37 :835–839.
-
41
Turell MJ, Barth J, Coleman RE, 1999. Potential for Central American mosquitoes to transmit epizootic and enzootic strains of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus. J Am Mosq Control Assoc 15 :295–298.
-
42
Turell MJ, O’Guinn ML, Navarro R, Romero G, Estrada-Franco JG, 2003. Vector competence of Mexican and Honduran mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) for enzootic (IE) and epizootic (IC) strains of Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis virus. J Med Entomol 40 :306–310.
-
43
Gonzalez-Salazar D, Estrada-Franco JG, Carrara AS, Aronson JF, Weaver SC, 2003. Equine amplification and virulence of subtype IE Venezuelan equine encephalitis viruses isolated during the 1993 and 1996 Mexican epizootics. Emerg Infect Dis 9 :161–168.
-
44
Wilkerson RC, Parsons TJ, Klein TA, Gaffigan TV, Bergo E, Consolim J, 1995. Diagnosis by random amplified polymorphic DNA polymerase chain reaction of four cryptic species related to Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) albitarsis (Diptera: Culicidae) from Paraguay, Argentina, and Brazil. J Med Entomol 32 :697–704.
-
45
Tabachnick W, Black W IV, 1995. Making a case for the molecular population genetic studies of arthropod vectors. Parasitol Today 11 :27–30.
-
46
Faran M, 1980. Mosquito Studies (Diptera: Culicidae) 34: A Revision of the albimanus Section of the Subgenus Nyssorhynchus of Anopheles. Contribution to the American Entomological Institute. Ann Arbor, MI: 215.
-
47
Moncada-Perez AM, Conn J, 1992. A polytene chromosome study of four populations of Anopheles aquasalis from Venezuela. Genome 35 :327–331.
-
48
Conn J, Cockburn AF, Mitchell SE, 1993. Population differentiation of the malaria vector Anopheles aquasalis using mitochondrial DNA. J Hered 84 :248–253.
-
49
Gimnig JE, Reisen WK, Eldridge BF, Nixon KC, Schutz SJ, 1999. Temporal and spatial genetic variation within and among populations of the mosquito Culex tarsalis (Diptera: Culicidae) from California. J Med Entomol 36 :23–29.
-
50
Walton TE, Alvarez O Jr, Buckwalter RM, Johnson KM, 1973. Experimental infection of horses with enzootic and epizootic strains of Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis virus. J Infect Dis 128 :271–282.
-
51
Wang E, Bowen RA, Medina G, Powers AM, Kang W, Chandler LM, Shope RE, Weaver SC, 2001. Virulence and viremia characteristics of 1992 epizootic subtype IC Venezuelan equine encephalitis viruses and closely related enzootic subtype ID strains. Am J Trop Med Hyg 65 :64–69.
-
52
Brault AC, Powers AM, Weaver SC, 2002. Vector infection determinants of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus reside within the E2 envelope glycoprotein. J Virol 76 :6387–6392.
-
53
Brault AC, Powers AM, Ortiz D, Estrada-Franco JG, Navarro-Lopez R, Weaver SC, 2004. Venezuelan equine encephalitis emergence: enhanced vector infection from a single amino acid substitution in the envelope glycoprotein. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 101 :11344–11349.
-
54
Kramer LD, Scherer WF, 1976. Vector competence of mosquitoes as a marker to distinguish Central American and Mexican epizootic from enzootic strains of Venezuelan encephalitis virus. Am J Trop Med Hyg 25 :336–346.
-
55
Fernandez Z, Moncayo AC, Carrara AS, Forattini OP, Weaver SC, 2003. Vector competence of rural and urban strains of Aedes (Stegomyia) albopictus (Diptera: Culicidae) from Sao Paulo State, Brazil for IC, ID, and IF subtypes of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus. J Med Entomol 40 :522–527.
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Vector Competence of Eastern and Western Forms of Psorophora columbiae (Diptera: Culicidae) Mosquitoes for Enzootic and Epizootic Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis Virus
Abelardo C. Moncayo
Abelardo C. Moncayo
Center for Tropical Disease and Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas; Vector-Borne Diseases Section, Communicable and Environmental Diseases, Tennessee Department of Health, Nashville, Tennessee; Centro de Investigación de Paludismo, Instituto Nacional de Salud Publica, Tapachula, Chiapas, Mexico
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Gregory Lanzaro
Gregory Lanzaro
Center for Tropical Disease and Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas; Vector-Borne Diseases Section, Communicable and Environmental Diseases, Tennessee Department of Health, Nashville, Tennessee; Centro de Investigación de Paludismo, Instituto Nacional de Salud Publica, Tapachula, Chiapas, Mexico
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Wenli Kang
Wenli Kang
Center for Tropical Disease and Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas; Vector-Borne Diseases Section, Communicable and Environmental Diseases, Tennessee Department of Health, Nashville, Tennessee; Centro de Investigación de Paludismo, Instituto Nacional de Salud Publica, Tapachula, Chiapas, Mexico
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Arnoldo Orozco
Arnoldo Orozco
Center for Tropical Disease and Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas; Vector-Borne Diseases Section, Communicable and Environmental Diseases, Tennessee Department of Health, Nashville, Tennessee; Centro de Investigación de Paludismo, Instituto Nacional de Salud Publica, Tapachula, Chiapas, Mexico
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Armando Ulloa
Armando Ulloa
Center for Tropical Disease and Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas; Vector-Borne Diseases Section, Communicable and Environmental Diseases, Tennessee Department of Health, Nashville, Tennessee; Centro de Investigación de Paludismo, Instituto Nacional de Salud Publica, Tapachula, Chiapas, Mexico
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Juan Arredondo-Jiménez
Juan Arredondo-Jiménez
Center for Tropical Disease and Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas; Vector-Borne Diseases Section, Communicable and Environmental Diseases, Tennessee Department of Health, Nashville, Tennessee; Centro de Investigación de Paludismo, Instituto Nacional de Salud Publica, Tapachula, Chiapas, Mexico
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Scott C. Weaver
Scott C. Weaver
Center for Tropical Disease and Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas; Vector-Borne Diseases Section, Communicable and Environmental Diseases, Tennessee Department of Health, Nashville, Tennessee; Centro de Investigación de Paludismo, Instituto Nacional de Salud Publica, Tapachula, Chiapas, Mexico
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Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV) continues to circulate enzootically in Mexico with the potential to re-emerge and cause disease in equines and humans in North America. We infected two geographically distinct mosquito populations of eastern Psorophora columbiae form columbiae (Chiapas, Mexico and Texas, United States) and one mosquito population of western Psorophora columbiae form toltecum (California, United States) with epizootic and enzootic IE VEEV and epizootic IAB VEEV. We detected no differences between epizootic and enzootic IE viruses in their ability to infect any of the mosquito populations analyzed, which suggested that neither species selects for epizootic IE viruses. Psorophora columbiae f. columbiae (Texas) were significantly less susceptible to infection by epizootic IE than Ps. columbiae f. columbiae (Mexico). Psorophora columbiae f. toltecum populations were more susceptible than Ps. columbiae f. columbiae populations to epizootic IE and IAB viruses.
Author Notes
- INTRODUCTION
- MATERIALS AND METHODS
- RESULTS
- Isozyme analysis.
- Transmission assays.
- Comparison between epizootic and enzootic IE genotypes.
- Geographic comparison of susceptibility to IE viruses.
- Comparison of Ps. columbiae f. columbiae versus Ps. columbiae f. toltecum in their susceptibilities to IE viruses.
- Comparison of Ps. columbiae f. columbiae versus Ps. columbiae f. toltecum in their susceptibilities to IAB virus.
- DISCUSSION
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1
Weaver SC, Ferro C, Barrera R, Boshell J, Navarro JC, 2004. Venezuelan equine encephalitis. Annu Rev Entomol 49 :141–174.
-
2
Johnson KM, Martin DH, 1974. Venezuelan equine encephalitis. Adv Vet Sci Comp Med 18 :79–116.
-
3
Walton TE, Grayson MA, 1989. Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis. Monath TP, ed. The Arboviruses: Epidemiology and Ecology. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 203–231.
-
4
Groot H, 1972. The health and economic impact of Venezuelan equine encephalitis (VEE). Proceedings of the Workshop-Symposium on Venezuelan Encephalitis Virus. Washington, DC: Pan American Health Organization, 7.
-
5
Scherer WF, 1972. History and importance of VE virus. Proceedings of the Workshop-Symposium on Venezuelan Encephalitis Virus. Washington, DC: Pan American Health Organization, 26.
-
6
Kubes V, 1972. Epizootic data. Proceedings of the Workshop-Symposium on Venezuelan Encephalitis Virus. Washington, DC: Pan American Health Organization, 18.
-
7
Kubes V, Rios FA, 1939. The causative agent of infectious equine encephalomyelitis in Venezuela. Science 90 :20–21.
-
8
Beck CE, Wyckoff RW, 1938. Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis. Science 88 :530.
-
9
Oberste MS, Fraire M, Navarro R, Zepeda C, Zarate ML, Ludwig GV, Kondig JF, Weaver SC, Smith JF, Rico-Hesse R, 1998. Association of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus subtype IE with two equine epizootics in Mexico. Am J Trop Med Hyg 59 :100–107.
-
10
Sudia WD, Newhouse VF, Beadle ID, Miller DL, Johnston JG Jr, Young R, Calisher CH, Maness K, 1975. Epidemic Venezuelan equine encephalitis in North America in 1971: vector studies. Am J Epidemiol 101 :17–35.
-
11
Sudia WD, Lord RD, Newhouse VF, Miller DL, Kissling RE, 1971. Vector-host studies of an epizootic of Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis in Guatemala, 1969. Am J Epidemiol 93 :137–143.
-
12
Sellers RF, Bergold GH, Suarez OM, Morales A, 1965. Investigations during Venezuelan equine encephalitis outbreaks in Venezuela, 1962–1964. Am J Trop Med Hyg 14 :460–469.
-
13
Sudia WD, Newhouse VF, Henderson BE, 1971. Experimental infection of horses with three strains of Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis virus. II. Experimental vector studies. Am J Epidemiol 93 :206–211.
-
14
Scherer WF, Dickerman RW, Ordonez JV, 1970. Discovery and geographic distribution of Venezuelan encephalitis virus in Guatemala, Honduras, and British Honduras during 1965–68, and its possible movement to Central America and Mexico. Am J Trop Med Hyg 19 :703–711.
-
15
Ortiz DI, Anishchenko M, Weaver SC, 2005. Susceptibility of Psorophora confinnis (Diptera: Culicidae) to infection with epizootic (subtype IC) and enzootic (subtype ID) Venezuelan Equine encephalitis viruses. J Med Entomol 42 :857–863.
-
16
Rico-Hesse R, Weaver SC, de Siger J, Medina G, Salas RA, 1995. Emergence of a new epidemic/epizootic Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus in South America. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 92 :5278–5281.
-
17
Rivas F, Diaz LA, Cardenas VM, Daza E, Bruzon L, Alcala A, de la Hoz O, Caceres FM, Aristizabal G, Martinez JW, Revelo D, de la Hoz F, Boshell J, Camacho T, Calderon L, Olano VA, Villarreal LI, Roselli D, Alvarez G, Ludwig G, Tsai T, 1997. Epidemic Venezuelan equine encephalitis in La Guajira, Colombia, 1995. J Infect Dis 175 :828–832.
-
18
Weaver SC, Salas R, Rico-Hesse R, Ludwig GV, Oberste MS, Boshell J, Tesh RB, 1996. Re-emergence of epidemic Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis in South America. VEE Study Group. Lancet 348 :436–440.
-
19
Howard L, Dyar H, Knab F, 1917. Mosquitoes of North and Central America and the West Indies. Washington, DC: Carnegie Institute of Washington Publication.
-
20
Aitken T, 1940. The genus Psorophora in California. Revista Entomol 11 :672–682.
-
21
Dyar H, Knab F, 1906. Diagnosis of new species of mosquitoes. Proc Biol Soc Wash 19 :133–142.
-
22
Carpenter S, LaCasse W, 1955. Mosquitoes of North America (North of Mexico). Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
-
23
Bickley W, 1984. Notes on the Psorophora confinnis complex. Mosq Systematics 16 :162–167.
-
24
Ruiz-Garcia M, Ramirez D, Bello F, Alvarez D, 2003. Psorophora columbiae and Psorophora toltecum (Diptera: Culicidae) Colombian populations cannot be differentiated by isoenzymes. Genet Mol Res 2 :229–259.
-
25
Ortiz DI, Weaver SC, 2004. Susceptibility of Ochlerotatus taeniorhynchus (Diptera: Culicidae) to infection with epizootic (subtype IC) and enzootic (subtype ID) Venezuelan equine encephalitis viruses: evidence for epizootic strain adaptation. J Med Entomol 41 :987–993.
-
26
Steiner W, Joslyn D, 1978. Electrophoretic techniques for the genetic study of mosquitoes. Mosq News 39 :25–54.
-
27
Lanzaro G, Narang S, Seawtight J, 1990. Speciation in an anopheline mosquito: enzyme polymorphism and the genetic structure of populations. Ann Entomol Soc Am 83 :578–585.
-
28
Gargan TP 2nd, Bailey CL, Higbee GA, Gad A, El Said S, 1983. The effect of laboratory colonization on the vector-pathogen interactions of Egyptian Culex pipiens and Rift Valley fever virus. Am J Trop Med Hyg 32 :1154–1163.
-
29
Turell MJ, Gargan TP 2nd, Bailey CL, 1984. Replication and dissemination of Rift Valley fever virus in Culex pipiens. Am J Trop Med Hyg 33 :176–181.
-
30
Weaver SC, Scott TW, Lorenz LH, 1990. Patterns of eastern equine encephalomyelitis virus infection in Culiseta melanura (Diptera: Culicidae). J Med Entomol 27 :878–891.
-
31
Lanzaro G, 1997. Genetics of the Mosquito Vector of Epidemic Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis. Advanced Research Program. College Station, TX: Texas A&M University.
-
32
Belkin J, Heinemann S, Page WA, 1970. Mosquito Studies (Diptera, Culicidae). XXI. The Culicidae of Jamaica. Contributions of the American Entomological Institute 6 :1–450.
-
33
Clemens A, 1999. The Biology of Mosquitoes. Cambridge, United Kingdom: CABI Publishing.
-
34
Mitchell CJ, Monath TP, Sabattini MS, Christensen HA, Darsie RF Jr, Jakob WL, Daffner JF, 1987. Host-feeding patterns of Argentine mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) collected during and after an epizootic of western equine encephalitis. J Med Entomol 24 :260–267.
-
35
Edman JD, 1971. Host-feeding patterns of Florida mosquitoes. I. Aedes, Anopheles, Coquillettidia, Mansonia and Psorophora. J Med Entomol 8 :687–695.
-
36
Whitehead F, 1951. Host preferences of Psorophora confinnis and Ps. discolor. J Econ Entomol 44 :1019.
-
37
Bishop F, 1933. Mosquitoes kill livestock. Science 77 :115–116.
-
38
Edman JD, Downe AER, 1964. Host-blood sources and multiple-feeding of mosquitoes in Kansas. Mosq News 24 :154–160.
-
39
Estrada-Franco JG, Navarro-Lopez R, Freier JE, Cordova D, Clements T, Moncayo A, Kang W, Gomez-Hernandez C, Rodriguez-Dominguez G, Ludwig GV, Weaver SC, 2004. Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus, southern Mexico. Emerg Infect Dis 10 :2113–2121.
-
40
Turell MJ, Jones JW, Sardelis MR, Dohm DJ, Coleman RE, Watts DM, Fernandez R, Calampa C, Klein TA, 2000. Vector competence of Peruvian mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) for epizootic and enzootic strains of Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis virus. J Med Entomol 37 :835–839.
-
41
Turell MJ, Barth J, Coleman RE, 1999. Potential for Central American mosquitoes to transmit epizootic and enzootic strains of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus. J Am Mosq Control Assoc 15 :295–298.
-
42
Turell MJ, O’Guinn ML, Navarro R, Romero G, Estrada-Franco JG, 2003. Vector competence of Mexican and Honduran mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) for enzootic (IE) and epizootic (IC) strains of Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis virus. J Med Entomol 40 :306–310.
-
43
Gonzalez-Salazar D, Estrada-Franco JG, Carrara AS, Aronson JF, Weaver SC, 2003. Equine amplification and virulence of subtype IE Venezuelan equine encephalitis viruses isolated during the 1993 and 1996 Mexican epizootics. Emerg Infect Dis 9 :161–168.
-
44
Wilkerson RC, Parsons TJ, Klein TA, Gaffigan TV, Bergo E, Consolim J, 1995. Diagnosis by random amplified polymorphic DNA polymerase chain reaction of four cryptic species related to Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) albitarsis (Diptera: Culicidae) from Paraguay, Argentina, and Brazil. J Med Entomol 32 :697–704.
-
45
Tabachnick W, Black W IV, 1995. Making a case for the molecular population genetic studies of arthropod vectors. Parasitol Today 11 :27–30.
-
46
Faran M, 1980. Mosquito Studies (Diptera: Culicidae) 34: A Revision of the albimanus Section of the Subgenus Nyssorhynchus of Anopheles. Contribution to the American Entomological Institute. Ann Arbor, MI: 215.
-
47
Moncada-Perez AM, Conn J, 1992. A polytene chromosome study of four populations of Anopheles aquasalis from Venezuela. Genome 35 :327–331.
-
48
Conn J, Cockburn AF, Mitchell SE, 1993. Population differentiation of the malaria vector Anopheles aquasalis using mitochondrial DNA. J Hered 84 :248–253.
-
49
Gimnig JE, Reisen WK, Eldridge BF, Nixon KC, Schutz SJ, 1999. Temporal and spatial genetic variation within and among populations of the mosquito Culex tarsalis (Diptera: Culicidae) from California. J Med Entomol 36 :23–29.
-
50
Walton TE, Alvarez O Jr, Buckwalter RM, Johnson KM, 1973. Experimental infection of horses with enzootic and epizootic strains of Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis virus. J Infect Dis 128 :271–282.
-
51
Wang E, Bowen RA, Medina G, Powers AM, Kang W, Chandler LM, Shope RE, Weaver SC, 2001. Virulence and viremia characteristics of 1992 epizootic subtype IC Venezuelan equine encephalitis viruses and closely related enzootic subtype ID strains. Am J Trop Med Hyg 65 :64–69.
-
52
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