ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1
Snow RW, Guerra CA, Noor AM, Myint HY, Hay SI, 2005. The global distribution of clinical episodes of Plasmodium falciparum malaria. Nature 434 :214–217.
-
2
World Health Organization Communicable Diseases Cluster, 2000. Severe falciparum malaria. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 94 (Suppl 1):S1–90.
-
3
World Health Organization Division of Control of Tropical Diseases, 1990. Severe and complicated malaria. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 84 (Suppl 2):1–65.
-
4
World Health Organization, 2006. Guidelines for the Treatment of Malaria. Geneva: WHO.
-
5
Berkley JA, Mwangi I, Mellington F, Mwarumba S, Marsh K, 1999. Cerebral malaria versus bacterial meningitis in children with impaired consciousness. Q J Med 92 :151–157.
-
6
Berkley J, Mwarumba S, Bramham K, Lowe B, Marsh K, 1999. Bacteraemia complicating severe malaria in children. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 93 :283–286.
-
7
Evans JA, Adusei A, Timmann C, May J, Mack D, Agbenyega T, Horstmann RD, Frimpong E, 2004. High mortality of infant bacteraemia clinically indistinguishable from severe malaria. Q J Med 97 :591–597.
-
8
Yen LM, Dao LM, Day NP, Waller DJ, Bethell DB, Son LH, Hien TT, White NJ, 1994. Role of quinine in the high mortality of intramuscular injection tetanus. Lancet 344 :786–787.
-
9
White NJ, Warrell DA, Chanthavanich P, Looareesuwan S, Warrell MJ, Krishna S, Williamson DH, Turner RC, 1983. Severe hypoglycemia and hyperinsulinemia in falciparum malaria. N Engl J Med 309 :61–66.
-
10
White NJ, Miller KD, Marsh K, Berry CD, Turner RC, Williamson DH, Brown J, 1987. Hypoglycaemia in African children with severe malaria. Lancet 1 :708–711.
-
11
White NJ, Looareesuwan S, Warrell DA, Warrell MJ, Chanthavanich P, Bunnag D, Harinasuta T, 1983. Quinine loading dose in cerebral malaria. Am J Trop Med Hyg 32 :1–5.
-
12
Krishna S, White NJ, 1996. Pharmacokinetics of quinine, chloroquine and amodiaquine. Clinical implications. Clin Pharmacokinet 30 :263–299.
-
13
Dondorp A, Nosten F, Stepniewska K, Day N, White N, 2005. Artesunate versus quinine for treatment of severe falciparum malaria: a randomised trial. Lancet 366 :717–725.
-
14
Artemether–Quinine Meta-analysis Study Group, 2001. A meta-analysis using individual patient data of trials comparing artemether with quinine in the treatment of severe falciparum malaria. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 95 :637–650.
-
15
Murphy SA, Mberu E, Muhia D, English M, Crawley J, Waruiru C, Lowe B, Newton CR, Winstanley P, Marsh K, Watkins WM, 1997. The disposition of intramuscular artemether in children with cerebral malaria; a preliminary study. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 91 :331–334.
-
16
Hien TT, Davis TM, Chuong LV, Ilett KF, Sinh DX, Phu NH, Agus C, Chiswell GM, White NJ, Farrar J, 2004. Comparative pharmacokinetics of intramuscular artesunate and artemether in patients with severe falciparum malaria. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 48 :4234–4239.
-
17
Magill A, Panosian C, 2005. Making antimalarial agents available in the United States. N Engl J Med 353 :335–337.
-
18
Brewer TG, Peggins JO, Grate SJ, Petras JM, Levine BS, Weina PJ, Swearengen J, Heiffer MH, Schuster BG, 1994. Neurotoxicity in animals due to arteether and artemether. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 88 (Suppl 1):S33–S36.
-
19
Hien TT, Turner GD, Mai NT, Phu NH, Bethell D, Blakemore WF, Cavanagh JB, Dayan A, Medana I, Weller RO, Day NP, White NJ, 2003. Neuropathological assessment of artemether-treated severe malaria. Lancet 362 :295–296.
-
20
Nontprasert A, Pukrittayakamee S, Dondorp AM, Clemens R, Looareesuwan S, White NJ, 2002. Neuropathologic toxicity of artemisinin derivatives in a mouse model. Am J Trop Med Hyg 67 :423–429.
-
21
Clark RL, White TE, A Clode S, Gaunt I, Winstanley P, Ward SA, 2004. Developmental toxicity of artesunate and an arte-sunate combination in the rat and rabbit. Birth Defects Res B Dev Reprod Toxicol 71 :380–394.
-
22
White TE, Bushdid PB, Ritter S, Laffan SB, Clark RL, 2006. Artesunate-induced depletion of embryonic erythroblasts precedes embryolethality and teratogenicity in vivo. Birth Defects Res B Dev Reprod Toxicol 77 :413–429.
-
23
Hien TT, Arnold K, Vinh H, Cuong BM, Phu NH, Chau TT, Hoa NT, Chuong LV, Mai NT, Vinh NN, et al., 1992. Comparison of artemisinin suppositories with intravenous artesunate and intravenous quinine in the treatment of cerebral malaria. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 86 :582–583.
-
24
Cao XT, Bethell DB, Pham TP, Ta TT, Tran TN, Nguyen TT, Pham TT, Nguyen TT, Day NP, White NJ, 1997. Comparison of artemisinin suppositories, intramuscular artesunate and intravenous quinine for the treatment of severe childhood malaria. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 91 :335–342.
-
25
Sabchareon A, Attanath P, Chanthavanich P, Phanuaksook P, Prarinyanupharb V, Poonpanich Y, Mookmanee D, Teja-Isavadharm P, Heppner DG, Brewer TG, Chongsuphajaisiddhi T, 1998. Comparative clinical trial of artesunate suppositories and oral artesunate in combination with mefloquine in the treatment of children with acute falciparum malaria. Am J Trop Med Hyg 58 :11–16.
-
26
Barnes KI, Mwenechanya J, Tembo M, McIlleron H, Folb PI, Ribeiro I, Little F, Gomes M, Molyneux ME, 2004. Efficacy of rectal artesunate compared with parenteral quinine in initial treatment of moderately severe malaria in African children and adults: a randomised study. Lancet 363 :1598–1605.
-
27
Karunajeewa HA, Reeder J, Lorry K, Dabod E, Hamzah J, Page-Sharp M, Chiswell GM, Ilett KF, Davis TM, 2006. Artesunate suppositories versus intramuscular artemether for treatment of severe malaria in children in Papua New Guinea. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 50 :968–974.
-
28
Simpson JA, Agbenyega T, Barnes KI, Di Perri G, Folb P, Gomes M, Krishna S, Krudsood S, Looareesuwan S, Mansor S, McIlleron H, Miller R, Molyneux M, Mwenechanya J, Navaratnam V, Nosten F, Olliaro P, Pang L, Ribeiro I, Tembo M, van Vugt M, Ward S, Weerasuriya K, Win K, White NJ, 2006. Population pharmacokinetics of artesunate and dihydroartemisinin following intra-rectal dosing of artesunate in malaria patients. PLoS Med 3 :e444.
-
29
Gerardin P, Rogier C, Ka AS, Jouvencel P, Diatta B, Imbert P, 2007. Outcome of life-threatening malaria in African children requiring endotracheal intubation. Malar J 6 :51.
-
30
Newton CR, Crawley J, Sowumni A, Waruiru C, Mwangi I, English M, Murphy S, Winstanley PA, Marsh K, Kirkham FJ, 1997. Intracranial hypertension in Africans with cerebral malaria. Arch Dis Child 76 :219–226.
-
31
Maitland K, Nadel S, Pollard AJ, Williams TN, Newton CR, Levin M, 2005. Management of severe malaria in children: proposed guidelines for the United Kingdom. BMJ 331 :337–343.
-
32
Crawley J, Waruiru C, Mithwani S, Mwangi I, Watkins W, Ouma D, Winstanley P, Peto T, Marsh K, 2000. Effect of phenobarbital on seizure frequency and mortality in childhood cerebral malaria: a randomised, controlled intervention study. Lancet 355 :701–706.
-
33
White NJ, Looareesuwan S, Phillips RE, Chanthavanich P, Warrell DA, 1988. Single dose phenobarbitone prevents convulsions in cerebral malaria. Lancet 2 :64–66.
-
34
Trang TT, Phu NH, Vinh H, Hien TT, Cuong BM, Chau TT, Mai NT, Waller DJ, White NJ, 1992. Acute renal failure in patients with severe falciparum malaria. Clin Infect Dis 15 :874–880.
-
35
Phu NH, Hien TT, Mai NT, Chau TT, Chuong LV, Loc PP, Winearls C, Farrar J, White N, Day N, 2002. Hemofiltration and peritoneal dialysis in infection-associated acute renal failure in Vietnam. N Engl J Med 347 :895–902.
-
36
Tran TH, Day NP, Nguyen HP, Nguyen TH, Tran TH, Pham PL, Dinh XS, Ly VC, Ha V, Waller D, Peto TE, White NJ, 1996. A controlled trial of artemether or quinine in Vietnamese adults with severe falciparum malaria. N Engl J Med 335 :76–83.
-
37
Bruneel F, Gachot B, Timsit JF, Wolff M, Bedos JP, Regnier B, Vachon F, 1997. Shock complicating severe falciparum malaria in European adults. Intensive Care Med 23 :698–701.
-
38
Day NP, Phu NH, Bethell DP, Mai NT, Chau TT, Hien TT, White NJ, 1996. The effects of dopamine and adrenaline infusions on acid–base balance and systemic haemodynamics in severe infection. Lancet 348 :219–223.
-
39
Planche T, Onanga M, Schwenk A, Dzeing A, Borrmann S, Faucher JF, Wright A, Bluck L, Ward L, Kombila M, Kremsner PG, Krishna S, 2004. Assessment of volume depletion in children with malaria. PLoS Med 1 :e18.
-
40
Planche T, 2005. Malaria and fluids—balancing acts. Trends Parasitol 21 :562–567.
-
41
Maitland K, 2006. Severe malaria: lessons learned from the management of critical illness in children. Trends Parasitol 22 :457–462.
-
42
Day N, 2006. Fluid resuscitation in malaria: the need for new randomised clinical trials. PLoS Clin Trials 1 :e24.
-
43
Krishna S, Waller DW, ter Kuile F, Kwiatkowski D, Crawley J, Craddock CF, Nosten F, Chapman D, Brewster D, Holloway PA, et al., 1994. Lactic acidosis and hypoglycaemia in children with severe malaria: pathophysiological and prognostic significance. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 88 :67–73.
-
44
Day NP, Phu NH, Mai NT, Chau TT, Loc PP, Chuong LV, Sinh DX, Holloway P, Hien TT, White NJ, 2000. The pathophysiologic and prognostic significance of acidosis in severe adult malaria. Crit Care Med 28 :1833–1840.
-
45
Dondorp AM, Chau TT, Phu NH, Mai NT, Loc PP, Chuong LV, Sinh DX, Taylor A, Hien TT, White NJ, Day NP, 2004. Unidentified acids of strong prognostic significance in severe malaria. Crit Care Med 32 :1683–1688.
-
46
Krishna S, Supanaranond W, Pukrittayakamee S, Karter D, Supputamongkol Y, Davis TM, Holloway PA, White NJ, 1994. Dichloroacetate for lactic acidosis in severe malaria: a pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic assessment. Metabolism 43 :974–981.
-
47
Agbenyega T, Planche T, Bedu-Addo G, Ansong D, Owusu-Ofori A, Bhattaram VA, Nagaraja NV, Shroads AL, Henderson GN, Hutson AD, Derendorf H, Krishna S, Stacpoole PW, 2003. Population kinetics, efficacy, and safety of dichloroacetate for lactic acidosis due to severe malaria in children. J Clin Pharmacol 43 :386–396.
-
48
World Health Organization, 2001. The Prevention and Management of Severe Anaemia in Children in Malaria-Endemic Regions of Africa: A Review of Research. Geneva: WHO.
-
49
Enwere G, 2005. A review of the quality of randomized clinical trials of adjunctive therapy for the treatment of cerebral malaria. Trop Med Int Health 10 :1171–1175.
-
50
van Hensbroek MB, Palmer A, Onyiorah E, Schneider G, Jaffar S, Dolan G, Memming H, Frenkel J, Enwere G, Bennett S, Kwiatkowski D, Greenwood B, 1996. The effect of a monoclonal antibody to tumor necrosis factor on survival from childhood cerebral malaria. J Infect Dis 174 :1091–1097.
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Warrell DA, Looareesuwan S, Warrell MJ, Kasemsarn P, Intara-prasert R, Bunnag D, Harinasuta T, 1982. Dexamethasone proves deleterious in cerebral malaria. A double-blind trial in 100 comatose patients. N Engl J Med 306 :313–319.
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Hoffman SL, Rustama D, Punjabi NH, Surampaet B, Sanjaya B, Dimpudus AJ, McKee KT Jr, Paleologo FP, Campbell JR, Marwoto H, et al., 1988. High-dose dexamethasone in quinine-treated patients with cerebral malaria: a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. J Infect Dis 158 :325–331.
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Prasad K, Garner P, 2000. Steroids for treating cerebral malaria. Cochrane Database Syst Rev CD000972.
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Smith HJ, Meremikwu M, 2003. Iron chelating agents for treating malaria. Cochrane Database Syst Rev CD001474.
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Powell VI, Grima K, 2002. Exchange transfusion for malaria and Babesia infection. Transfus Med Rev 16 :239–250.
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Riddle MS, Jackson JL, Sanders JW, Blazes DL, 2002. Exchange transfusion as an adjunct therapy in severe Plasmodium falciparum malaria: a meta-analysis. Clin Infect Dis 34 :1192–1198.
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Watt G, Jongsakul K, Ruangvirayuth R, 2002. A pilot study of N-acetylcysteine as adjunctive therapy for severe malaria. Q J Med 95 :285–290.
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Dondorp AM, Silamut K, Charunwatthana P, Chuasuwanchai S, Ruangveerayut R, Krintratun S, White NJ, Ho M, Day NPJ, 2007. Levamisole inhibits sequestration of infected red blood cells in patients with falciparum malaria. J Int Dis 196 :460–466.
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The Management of Patients with Severe Malaria
Nicholas Day
Nicholas Day
Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand, and the Centre for Tropical Medicine, Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
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Arjen M. Dondorp
Arjen M. Dondorp
Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand, and the Centre for Tropical Medicine, Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
Search for other papers by Arjen M. Dondorp in
Current site
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Search for other papers by Arjen M. Dondorp in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Severe malaria is a global problem, claiming at least 1 million lives annually. Few adequately powered clinical studies have been directed at improving the management of severe malaria over the years, but this situation is slowly changing. The antimalarial treatment of severe disease is being transformed by the development and deployment of the water-soluble artemisinin derivative artesunate. Parenteral artesunate is now the treatment of choice in low-transmission areas and in the 2nd and 3rd trimesters of pregnancy, and research is underway into whether it should replace quinine as the treatment of choice in African children. Development of good manufacturing practice (GMP) formulations should make parenteral artesunate more widely available in the near future. The development of artesunate suppositories offers another exciting prospect, the ability to treat patients with severe disease in remote rural settings, delaying the evolution of disease and buying them time to reach a health care facility. No adjunctive therapy has been shown to improve the outcome of severe malaria, but most studies have been underpowered. Future trials of interventions shown to be promising in pilot studies should be large and adequately powered. This will require multi-center designs and necessitate close collaboration between groups, as well as agreement on the research agenda. We suggest a list of candidate interventions for debate.
Author Notes
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1
Snow RW, Guerra CA, Noor AM, Myint HY, Hay SI, 2005. The global distribution of clinical episodes of Plasmodium falciparum malaria. Nature 434 :214–217.
-
2
World Health Organization Communicable Diseases Cluster, 2000. Severe falciparum malaria. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 94 (Suppl 1):S1–90.
-
3
World Health Organization Division of Control of Tropical Diseases, 1990. Severe and complicated malaria. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 84 (Suppl 2):1–65.
-
4
World Health Organization, 2006. Guidelines for the Treatment of Malaria. Geneva: WHO.
-
5
Berkley JA, Mwangi I, Mellington F, Mwarumba S, Marsh K, 1999. Cerebral malaria versus bacterial meningitis in children with impaired consciousness. Q J Med 92 :151–157.
-
6
Berkley J, Mwarumba S, Bramham K, Lowe B, Marsh K, 1999. Bacteraemia complicating severe malaria in children. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 93 :283–286.
-
7
Evans JA, Adusei A, Timmann C, May J, Mack D, Agbenyega T, Horstmann RD, Frimpong E, 2004. High mortality of infant bacteraemia clinically indistinguishable from severe malaria. Q J Med 97 :591–597.
-
8
Yen LM, Dao LM, Day NP, Waller DJ, Bethell DB, Son LH, Hien TT, White NJ, 1994. Role of quinine in the high mortality of intramuscular injection tetanus. Lancet 344 :786–787.
-
9
White NJ, Warrell DA, Chanthavanich P, Looareesuwan S, Warrell MJ, Krishna S, Williamson DH, Turner RC, 1983. Severe hypoglycemia and hyperinsulinemia in falciparum malaria. N Engl J Med 309 :61–66.
-
10
White NJ, Miller KD, Marsh K, Berry CD, Turner RC, Williamson DH, Brown J, 1987. Hypoglycaemia in African children with severe malaria. Lancet 1 :708–711.
-
11
White NJ, Looareesuwan S, Warrell DA, Warrell MJ, Chanthavanich P, Bunnag D, Harinasuta T, 1983. Quinine loading dose in cerebral malaria. Am J Trop Med Hyg 32 :1–5.
-
12
Krishna S, White NJ, 1996. Pharmacokinetics of quinine, chloroquine and amodiaquine. Clinical implications. Clin Pharmacokinet 30 :263–299.
-
13
Dondorp A, Nosten F, Stepniewska K, Day N, White N, 2005. Artesunate versus quinine for treatment of severe falciparum malaria: a randomised trial. Lancet 366 :717–725.
-
14
Artemether–Quinine Meta-analysis Study Group, 2001. A meta-analysis using individual patient data of trials comparing artemether with quinine in the treatment of severe falciparum malaria. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 95 :637–650.
-
15
Murphy SA, Mberu E, Muhia D, English M, Crawley J, Waruiru C, Lowe B, Newton CR, Winstanley P, Marsh K, Watkins WM, 1997. The disposition of intramuscular artemether in children with cerebral malaria; a preliminary study. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 91 :331–334.
-
16
Hien TT, Davis TM, Chuong LV, Ilett KF, Sinh DX, Phu NH, Agus C, Chiswell GM, White NJ, Farrar J, 2004. Comparative pharmacokinetics of intramuscular artesunate and artemether in patients with severe falciparum malaria. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 48 :4234–4239.
-
17
Magill A, Panosian C, 2005. Making antimalarial agents available in the United States. N Engl J Med 353 :335–337.
-
18
Brewer TG, Peggins JO, Grate SJ, Petras JM, Levine BS, Weina PJ, Swearengen J, Heiffer MH, Schuster BG, 1994. Neurotoxicity in animals due to arteether and artemether. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 88 (Suppl 1):S33–S36.
-
19
Hien TT, Turner GD, Mai NT, Phu NH, Bethell D, Blakemore WF, Cavanagh JB, Dayan A, Medana I, Weller RO, Day NP, White NJ, 2003. Neuropathological assessment of artemether-treated severe malaria. Lancet 362 :295–296.
-
20
Nontprasert A, Pukrittayakamee S, Dondorp AM, Clemens R, Looareesuwan S, White NJ, 2002. Neuropathologic toxicity of artemisinin derivatives in a mouse model. Am J Trop Med Hyg 67 :423–429.
-
21
Clark RL, White TE, A Clode S, Gaunt I, Winstanley P, Ward SA, 2004. Developmental toxicity of artesunate and an arte-sunate combination in the rat and rabbit. Birth Defects Res B Dev Reprod Toxicol 71 :380–394.
-
22
White TE, Bushdid PB, Ritter S, Laffan SB, Clark RL, 2006. Artesunate-induced depletion of embryonic erythroblasts precedes embryolethality and teratogenicity in vivo. Birth Defects Res B Dev Reprod Toxicol 77 :413–429.
-
23
Hien TT, Arnold K, Vinh H, Cuong BM, Phu NH, Chau TT, Hoa NT, Chuong LV, Mai NT, Vinh NN, et al., 1992. Comparison of artemisinin suppositories with intravenous artesunate and intravenous quinine in the treatment of cerebral malaria. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 86 :582–583.
-
24
Cao XT, Bethell DB, Pham TP, Ta TT, Tran TN, Nguyen TT, Pham TT, Nguyen TT, Day NP, White NJ, 1997. Comparison of artemisinin suppositories, intramuscular artesunate and intravenous quinine for the treatment of severe childhood malaria. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 91 :335–342.
-
25
Sabchareon A, Attanath P, Chanthavanich P, Phanuaksook P, Prarinyanupharb V, Poonpanich Y, Mookmanee D, Teja-Isavadharm P, Heppner DG, Brewer TG, Chongsuphajaisiddhi T, 1998. Comparative clinical trial of artesunate suppositories and oral artesunate in combination with mefloquine in the treatment of children with acute falciparum malaria. Am J Trop Med Hyg 58 :11–16.
-
26
Barnes KI, Mwenechanya J, Tembo M, McIlleron H, Folb PI, Ribeiro I, Little F, Gomes M, Molyneux ME, 2004. Efficacy of rectal artesunate compared with parenteral quinine in initial treatment of moderately severe malaria in African children and adults: a randomised study. Lancet 363 :1598–1605.
-
27
Karunajeewa HA, Reeder J, Lorry K, Dabod E, Hamzah J, Page-Sharp M, Chiswell GM, Ilett KF, Davis TM, 2006. Artesunate suppositories versus intramuscular artemether for treatment of severe malaria in children in Papua New Guinea. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 50 :968–974.
-
28
Simpson JA, Agbenyega T, Barnes KI, Di Perri G, Folb P, Gomes M, Krishna S, Krudsood S, Looareesuwan S, Mansor S, McIlleron H, Miller R, Molyneux M, Mwenechanya J, Navaratnam V, Nosten F, Olliaro P, Pang L, Ribeiro I, Tembo M, van Vugt M, Ward S, Weerasuriya K, Win K, White NJ, 2006. Population pharmacokinetics of artesunate and dihydroartemisinin following intra-rectal dosing of artesunate in malaria patients. PLoS Med 3 :e444.
-
29
Gerardin P, Rogier C, Ka AS, Jouvencel P, Diatta B, Imbert P, 2007. Outcome of life-threatening malaria in African children requiring endotracheal intubation. Malar J 6 :51.
-
30
Newton CR, Crawley J, Sowumni A, Waruiru C, Mwangi I, English M, Murphy S, Winstanley PA, Marsh K, Kirkham FJ, 1997. Intracranial hypertension in Africans with cerebral malaria. Arch Dis Child 76 :219–226.
-
31
Maitland K, Nadel S, Pollard AJ, Williams TN, Newton CR, Levin M, 2005. Management of severe malaria in children: proposed guidelines for the United Kingdom. BMJ 331 :337–343.
-
32
Crawley J, Waruiru C, Mithwani S, Mwangi I, Watkins W, Ouma D, Winstanley P, Peto T, Marsh K, 2000. Effect of phenobarbital on seizure frequency and mortality in childhood cerebral malaria: a randomised, controlled intervention study. Lancet 355 :701–706.
-
33
White NJ, Looareesuwan S, Phillips RE, Chanthavanich P, Warrell DA, 1988. Single dose phenobarbitone prevents convulsions in cerebral malaria. Lancet 2 :64–66.
-
34
Trang TT, Phu NH, Vinh H, Hien TT, Cuong BM, Chau TT, Mai NT, Waller DJ, White NJ, 1992. Acute renal failure in patients with severe falciparum malaria. Clin Infect Dis 15 :874–880.
-
35
Phu NH, Hien TT, Mai NT, Chau TT, Chuong LV, Loc PP, Winearls C, Farrar J, White N, Day N, 2002. Hemofiltration and peritoneal dialysis in infection-associated acute renal failure in Vietnam. N Engl J Med 347 :895–902.
-
36
Tran TH, Day NP, Nguyen HP, Nguyen TH, Tran TH, Pham PL, Dinh XS, Ly VC, Ha V, Waller D, Peto TE, White NJ, 1996. A controlled trial of artemether or quinine in Vietnamese adults with severe falciparum malaria. N Engl J Med 335 :76–83.
-
37
Bruneel F, Gachot B, Timsit JF, Wolff M, Bedos JP, Regnier B, Vachon F, 1997. Shock complicating severe falciparum malaria in European adults. Intensive Care Med 23 :698–701.
-
38
Day NP, Phu NH, Bethell DP, Mai NT, Chau TT, Hien TT, White NJ, 1996. The effects of dopamine and adrenaline infusions on acid–base balance and systemic haemodynamics in severe infection. Lancet 348 :219–223.
-
39
Planche T, Onanga M, Schwenk A, Dzeing A, Borrmann S, Faucher JF, Wright A, Bluck L, Ward L, Kombila M, Kremsner PG, Krishna S, 2004. Assessment of volume depletion in children with malaria. PLoS Med 1 :e18.
-
40
Planche T, 2005. Malaria and fluids—balancing acts. Trends Parasitol 21 :562–567.
-
41
Maitland K, 2006. Severe malaria: lessons learned from the management of critical illness in children. Trends Parasitol 22 :457–462.
-
42
Day N, 2006. Fluid resuscitation in malaria: the need for new randomised clinical trials. PLoS Clin Trials 1 :e24.
-
43
Krishna S, Waller DW, ter Kuile F, Kwiatkowski D, Crawley J, Craddock CF, Nosten F, Chapman D, Brewster D, Holloway PA, et al., 1994. Lactic acidosis and hypoglycaemia in children with severe malaria: pathophysiological and prognostic significance. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 88 :67–73.
-
44
Day NP, Phu NH, Mai NT, Chau TT, Loc PP, Chuong LV, Sinh DX, Holloway P, Hien TT, White NJ, 2000. The pathophysiologic and prognostic significance of acidosis in severe adult malaria. Crit Care Med 28 :1833–1840.
-
45
Dondorp AM, Chau TT, Phu NH, Mai NT, Loc PP, Chuong LV, Sinh DX, Taylor A, Hien TT, White NJ, Day NP, 2004. Unidentified acids of strong prognostic significance in severe malaria. Crit Care Med 32 :1683–1688.
-
46
Krishna S, Supanaranond W, Pukrittayakamee S, Karter D, Supputamongkol Y, Davis TM, Holloway PA, White NJ, 1994. Dichloroacetate for lactic acidosis in severe malaria: a pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic assessment. Metabolism 43 :974–981.
-
47
Agbenyega T, Planche T, Bedu-Addo G, Ansong D, Owusu-Ofori A, Bhattaram VA, Nagaraja NV, Shroads AL, Henderson GN, Hutson AD, Derendorf H, Krishna S, Stacpoole PW, 2003. Population kinetics, efficacy, and safety of dichloroacetate for lactic acidosis due to severe malaria in children. J Clin Pharmacol 43 :386–396.
-
48
World Health Organization, 2001. The Prevention and Management of Severe Anaemia in Children in Malaria-Endemic Regions of Africa: A Review of Research. Geneva: WHO.
-
49
Enwere G, 2005. A review of the quality of randomized clinical trials of adjunctive therapy for the treatment of cerebral malaria. Trop Med Int Health 10 :1171–1175.
-
50
van Hensbroek MB, Palmer A, Onyiorah E, Schneider G, Jaffar S, Dolan G, Memming H, Frenkel J, Enwere G, Bennett S, Kwiatkowski D, Greenwood B, 1996. The effect of a monoclonal antibody to tumor necrosis factor on survival from childhood cerebral malaria. J Infect Dis 174 :1091–1097.
-
51
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