Author:
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
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-
1
Matola YG, Magayuka SA, 1981. Malaria in the Pare area of Tanzania. V. Malaria 20 years after the end of residual insecticide spraying. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 75 :811–813.
-
2
Molyneux L, Gramiccia G, 1980. The Garki Project. WHO, Geneva.
-
3
Amexo M, Tolhurst R, Barnish G, Bates I, 2004. Malaria misdiagnosis: effects on the poor and vulnerable. Lancet 238 :1896–1898.
-
4
Reyburn H, Mbatia R, Drakeley C, Carneiro I, Mwakasungula E, Mwerinde O, Saganda K, Shao J, Kitua A, Olomi R, Greenwood BM, Whitty CJM, 2004. Overdiagnosis of malaria in patients with severe febrile illness in Tanzania: a prospective study. BMJ 329 :1212–1215.
-
5
Makani J, Matuja W, Liyombo E, Snow RW, Marsh K, Warrell DA, 2003. Admission diagnosis of cerebral malaria in adults in an endemic area of Tanzania: implications and clinical description. Q J Med 96 :355–362.
-
6
Taylor TE, Fu WJ, Carr RA, Whitten RO, Mueller JS, Fosiko NG, Liomba NG, Molyneux ME, 2004. Differentiating the pathologies of cerebral malaria by postmortem parasite counts. Nat Med 10 :143–145.
-
7
Greenwood BM, Greenwood AM, Bradley AK, Tulloch S, Hayes R, Oldfield FS, 1987. Deaths in infancy and early childhood in a well-vaccinated, rural, West African population. Ann Trop Paediatr 7 :91–99.
-
8
Chalumeau M, Holvoet L, Cheron G, Minodier P, Foix-L’Helias L, Ovetchkine P, Moulin F, Nouyrigat V, Breart G, Gendrel D, 2006. Delay in diagnosis of imported Plasmodium falciparum malaria in children. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 25 :186–189.
-
9
Smith T, Schellenberg JA, Hayes R, 1994. Attributable fraction estimates and case definitions for malaria in endemic areas. Stat Med 13 :2345–2358.
-
10
Qin J, Leung DH, 2005. A semiparametric two-component “compound” mixture model and its application to estimating malaria attributable fractions. Biometrics 61 :456–464.
-
11
Chandler Drakely CJ, Reyburn H, Carneiro I, 2006. The effect of altitude in parasite density case definitions for malaria in northeastern Tanzania. Trop Med Int Health 11 :1178–1184.
-
12
Boisier P, Jambou R, Raharimalala L, Roux J, 2002. Relationship between parasite density and fever risk in a community exposed to a low level of malaria transmission in Madagascar highlands. Am J Trop Med Hyg 67 :137–140.
-
13
Vounatsou P, Smith T, Kitua AY, Alonso PL, Tanner M, 2000. Apparent tolerance of Plasmodium falciparum in infants in a highly endemic area. Parasitology 120 :1–9.
-
14
Dicko A, Mantel C, Kouriba B, Sagara I, Thera MA, Doumbia S, Diallo M, Poudiougou B, Diakite M, Doumbo OK, 2005. Season, fever prevalence and pyrogenic threshold for malaria disease definition in an endemic area of Mali. Trop Med Int Health 10 :550–556.
-
15
Reyburn H, Ruanda J, Mwerinde O, Drakeley C, 2006. The contribution of microscopy to targeting antimalarial treatment in a low transmission area of Tanzania. Malaria J 5 :4.
-
16
McGuinness D, Koram K, Bennett S, Wagner G, Nkrumah F, Riley E, 1998. Clinical case definitions for malaria: clinical malaria associated with very low parasite densities in African infants. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 92 :527–531.
-
17
Rogier C, Commenges D, Trape JF, 1996. Evidence for an age-dependent pyrogenic threshold of Plasmodium falciparum parasitemia in highly endemic populations. Am J Trop Med Hyg 54 :613–619.
-
18
Delley V, Bouvier P, Breslow N, Doumbo O, Sagara I, Diakite M, Mauris A, Dolo A, Rougemont A, 2000. What does a single determination of malaria parasite density mean? A longitudinal survey in Mali. Trop Med Int Health 5 :404–412.
-
19
O’Dempsey TJ, McArdle TF, Laurence BE, Lamont AC, Todd JE, Greenwood BM, 1993. Overlap in the clinical features of pneumonia and malaria in African children. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 87 :662–665.
-
20
Chandramohan D, Jaffar S, Greenwood B, 2002. Use of clinical algorithms for diagnosing malaria. Trop Med Int Health 7 :45–52.
-
21
Kallander K, Nsungwa-Sabiiti J, Peterson S, 2004. Symptom overlap for malaria and pneumonia–policy implications for home management strategies. Acta Trop 90 :211–214.
-
22
Luxemburger C, Nosten F, Kyle DE, Kiricharoen L, Chong-suphajaisiddhi T, White NJ, 1998. Clinical features cannot predict a diagnosis of malaria or differentiate the infecting species in children living in an area of low transmission. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 92 :45–49.
-
23
Redd SC, Kazembe PN, Luby SP, Nwanyanwu O, Hightower AW, Ziba C, Wirima JJ, Chitsulo L, Franco C, Olivar M, 1996. Clinical algorithm for treatment of Plasmodium falciparum malaria in children. Lancet 347 :223–227.
-
24
Weber MW, Mulholland EK, Jaffar S, Troedsson H, Gove S, Greenwood BM, 1997. Evaluation of an algorithm for the integrated management of childhood illness in an area with seasonal malaria in the Gambia. Bull World Health Organ 75 (Suppl 1):25–32.
-
25
Boreham PF, Lenahan JK, Port GR, McGregor IA, 1981. Haptoglobin polymorphism and its relationship to malaria infections in The Gambia. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 75 :193–200.
-
26
Trape JF, Fribourg-Blanc A, 1988. Ahaptoglobinaemia in African populations and its relation to malaria endemicity. Am J Epidemiol 127 :1282–1288.
-
27
Elagib AA, Kider AO, Akerström B, Elbasir MI, 1998. Association of the haptoblobin phenotype (1–1) with falciparum malaria in Sudan. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 92 :309–311.
-
28
Quaye IK, Ekuban FA, Goka BQ, Adabayeri V, Kurtzhals JA, Gyan B, Ankrah NA, Hviid L, Akanmori BD, 2000. Haptoglobin 1–1 is associated with susceptibility to severe Plasmodium falciparum malaria. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 94 :216–219.
-
29
Aucan C, Walley AJ, Greenwood BM, Hill AV, 2002. Haptoglobin genotypes are not associated with resistance to severe malaria in The Gambia. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 96 :327–328.
-
30
Bienzle U, Eggelte TA, Adjei LA, Dietz E, Ehrhardt S, Cramer JP, Otchwemah RN, Mockenhaupt FP, 2005. Limited influence of haptoglobin genotypes on severe malaria in Ghanaian children. Trop Med Int Health 10 :668–671.
-
31
Atkinson SH, Rockett K, Sirugo G, Bejon PA, Fulford A, O’Connell MA, Bailey R, Kwiatkowski DP, Prentice AM, 2006. Seasonal childhood anaemia in West Africa is associated with the haptoglobin 2–2 genotype. PLoS Med 3 :e172.
-
32
Kwiatkowski D, Hill AV, Sambou I, Twumasi P, Castracane J, Manogue KR, Cerami A, Brewster DR, Greenwood BM, 1990. TNF concentration in fatal cerebral, non-fatal cerebral and uncomplicated malaria. Lancet 336 :1201–1204.
-
33
Perkins DJ, Weinberg JB, Kremsner PG, 2000. Reduced inter-leukin-12 and transforming growth factor-β1 in severe childhood malaria: relationship of cytokine balance with disease severity. J Infect Dis 182 :998–992.
-
34
Wenisch C, Parschalk B, Burgmann H, Looareesuwan S, Graninger W, 1995. Decreased serum levels of TGF-beta in patients with acute Plasmodium falciparum malaria. J Clin Immunol 15 :69–73.
-
35
Dodoo D, Omer FM, Todd J, Akanmori BD, Koram KA, Riley EM, 2002. Absolute levels and ratios of proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokine production in vitro predict clinical immunity to Plasmodium falciparum malaria. J Infect Dis 185 :971–979.
-
36
Lewallen S, Taylor TE, Molyneux ME, Wills BA, Courtright P, 1993. Ocular fundus findings in Malawian children with cerebral malaria. Ophthalmology 100 :857–861.
-
37
Beare NA, Southern C, Chalira C, Taylor TE, Molyneux ME, Harding SP, 2004. Prognostic significance and course of retinopathy in children with severe malaria. Arch Ophthalmol 122 :1141–1147.
-
38
Alonso PL, Lindsay SW, Armstrong JR, Conteh M, Hill AG, David PH, Fegan G, de Francisco A, Hall AJ, Shenton FC, 1991. The effect of insecticide-treated bed nets on mortality of Gambian children. Lancet 337 :1499–1502.
-
39
Binka FN, Kubaje A, Adjuik M, Williams LA, Lengeler C, Maude GH, Armah GE, Kajihara B, Adiamah JH, Smith PG, 1996. Impact of permethrin-impregnated bed nets on child mortality in Kassena-Nankana District, Ghana: a randomized controlled trial. Trop Med Int Hlth 1 :147–154.
-
40
Snow RW, Korenromp EL, Gouws E, 2004. Pediatric mortality in Africa: Plasmodium falciparum malaria as a cause or risk? Am J Trop Med Hyg 71 (Suppl 2):16–24.
| Past two years | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 16 | 16 | 10 |
| Full Text Views | 217 | 100 | 1 |
| PDF Downloads | 34 | 22 | 0 |
When Is “Malaria” Malaria? The Different Burdens of Malaria Infection, Malaria Disease, and Malaria-Like Illnesses
K. A. Koram
K. A. Koram
Department of Epidemiology, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research, College of Health Sciences, University of Ghana, Lego; Malawi-Liverpool-Wellcome Trust Clinical Research Programme, College of Medicine, University of Malawi; School of Tropical Medicine, University of Liverpool, United Kingdom
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M. E. Molyneux
M. E. Molyneux
Department of Epidemiology, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research, College of Health Sciences, University of Ghana, Lego; Malawi-Liverpool-Wellcome Trust Clinical Research Programme, College of Medicine, University of Malawi; School of Tropical Medicine, University of Liverpool, United Kingdom
Search for other papers by M. E. Molyneux in
Current site
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Search for other papers by M. E. Molyneux in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
In this review we discuss the different meanings of the term ‘malaria’ and urge writers and readers to distinguish accurately between them. The distinction is important in clinical practice, clinical trials, epidemiology, and the evaluation of control programs. Both over- and underdiagnosis of malaria as the cause of a disease episode are inevitable; overdiagnosis is common in high-transmission areas and underdiagnosis is common in areas with little or no transmission. Parasite density thresholds, attributable fractions, and clinical algorithms have played important but only partial roles in strengthening diagnosis. Methods by which malaria infection could be confidently identified as the cause, rather than an irrelevant accompaniment, of an illness, are important targets for research. One such ‘signature’ is a distinctive retinopathy that occurs in severe malaria and not in clinically similar diseases. Other indicators of a malarial etiology of clinical disease are needed to strengthen clinical and scientific approaches to the control of malaria.
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1
Matola YG, Magayuka SA, 1981. Malaria in the Pare area of Tanzania. V. Malaria 20 years after the end of residual insecticide spraying. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 75 :811–813.
-
2
Molyneux L, Gramiccia G, 1980. The Garki Project. WHO, Geneva.
-
3
Amexo M, Tolhurst R, Barnish G, Bates I, 2004. Malaria misdiagnosis: effects on the poor and vulnerable. Lancet 238 :1896–1898.
-
4
Reyburn H, Mbatia R, Drakeley C, Carneiro I, Mwakasungula E, Mwerinde O, Saganda K, Shao J, Kitua A, Olomi R, Greenwood BM, Whitty CJM, 2004. Overdiagnosis of malaria in patients with severe febrile illness in Tanzania: a prospective study. BMJ 329 :1212–1215.
-
5
Makani J, Matuja W, Liyombo E, Snow RW, Marsh K, Warrell DA, 2003. Admission diagnosis of cerebral malaria in adults in an endemic area of Tanzania: implications and clinical description. Q J Med 96 :355–362.
-
6
Taylor TE, Fu WJ, Carr RA, Whitten RO, Mueller JS, Fosiko NG, Liomba NG, Molyneux ME, 2004. Differentiating the pathologies of cerebral malaria by postmortem parasite counts. Nat Med 10 :143–145.
-
7
Greenwood BM, Greenwood AM, Bradley AK, Tulloch S, Hayes R, Oldfield FS, 1987. Deaths in infancy and early childhood in a well-vaccinated, rural, West African population. Ann Trop Paediatr 7 :91–99.
-
8
Chalumeau M, Holvoet L, Cheron G, Minodier P, Foix-L’Helias L, Ovetchkine P, Moulin F, Nouyrigat V, Breart G, Gendrel D, 2006. Delay in diagnosis of imported Plasmodium falciparum malaria in children. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 25 :186–189.
-
9
Smith T, Schellenberg JA, Hayes R, 1994. Attributable fraction estimates and case definitions for malaria in endemic areas. Stat Med 13 :2345–2358.
-
10
Qin J, Leung DH, 2005. A semiparametric two-component “compound” mixture model and its application to estimating malaria attributable fractions. Biometrics 61 :456–464.
-
11
Chandler Drakely CJ, Reyburn H, Carneiro I, 2006. The effect of altitude in parasite density case definitions for malaria in northeastern Tanzania. Trop Med Int Health 11 :1178–1184.
-
12
Boisier P, Jambou R, Raharimalala L, Roux J, 2002. Relationship between parasite density and fever risk in a community exposed to a low level of malaria transmission in Madagascar highlands. Am J Trop Med Hyg 67 :137–140.
-
13
Vounatsou P, Smith T, Kitua AY, Alonso PL, Tanner M, 2000. Apparent tolerance of Plasmodium falciparum in infants in a highly endemic area. Parasitology 120 :1–9.
-
14
Dicko A, Mantel C, Kouriba B, Sagara I, Thera MA, Doumbia S, Diallo M, Poudiougou B, Diakite M, Doumbo OK, 2005. Season, fever prevalence and pyrogenic threshold for malaria disease definition in an endemic area of Mali. Trop Med Int Health 10 :550–556.
-
15
Reyburn H, Ruanda J, Mwerinde O, Drakeley C, 2006. The contribution of microscopy to targeting antimalarial treatment in a low transmission area of Tanzania. Malaria J 5 :4.
-
16
McGuinness D, Koram K, Bennett S, Wagner G, Nkrumah F, Riley E, 1998. Clinical case definitions for malaria: clinical malaria associated with very low parasite densities in African infants. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 92 :527–531.
-
17
Rogier C, Commenges D, Trape JF, 1996. Evidence for an age-dependent pyrogenic threshold of Plasmodium falciparum parasitemia in highly endemic populations. Am J Trop Med Hyg 54 :613–619.
-
18
Delley V, Bouvier P, Breslow N, Doumbo O, Sagara I, Diakite M, Mauris A, Dolo A, Rougemont A, 2000. What does a single determination of malaria parasite density mean? A longitudinal survey in Mali. Trop Med Int Health 5 :404–412.
-
19
O’Dempsey TJ, McArdle TF, Laurence BE, Lamont AC, Todd JE, Greenwood BM, 1993. Overlap in the clinical features of pneumonia and malaria in African children. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 87 :662–665.
-
20
Chandramohan D, Jaffar S, Greenwood B, 2002. Use of clinical algorithms for diagnosing malaria. Trop Med Int Health 7 :45–52.
-
21
Kallander K, Nsungwa-Sabiiti J, Peterson S, 2004. Symptom overlap for malaria and pneumonia–policy implications for home management strategies. Acta Trop 90 :211–214.
-
22
Luxemburger C, Nosten F, Kyle DE, Kiricharoen L, Chong-suphajaisiddhi T, White NJ, 1998. Clinical features cannot predict a diagnosis of malaria or differentiate the infecting species in children living in an area of low transmission. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 92 :45–49.
-
23
Redd SC, Kazembe PN, Luby SP, Nwanyanwu O, Hightower AW, Ziba C, Wirima JJ, Chitsulo L, Franco C, Olivar M, 1996. Clinical algorithm for treatment of Plasmodium falciparum malaria in children. Lancet 347 :223–227.
-
24
Weber MW, Mulholland EK, Jaffar S, Troedsson H, Gove S, Greenwood BM, 1997. Evaluation of an algorithm for the integrated management of childhood illness in an area with seasonal malaria in the Gambia. Bull World Health Organ 75 (Suppl 1):25–32.
-
25
Boreham PF, Lenahan JK, Port GR, McGregor IA, 1981. Haptoglobin polymorphism and its relationship to malaria infections in The Gambia. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 75 :193–200.
-
26
Trape JF, Fribourg-Blanc A, 1988. Ahaptoglobinaemia in African populations and its relation to malaria endemicity. Am J Epidemiol 127 :1282–1288.
-
27
Elagib AA, Kider AO, Akerström B, Elbasir MI, 1998. Association of the haptoblobin phenotype (1–1) with falciparum malaria in Sudan. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 92 :309–311.
-
28
Quaye IK, Ekuban FA, Goka BQ, Adabayeri V, Kurtzhals JA, Gyan B, Ankrah NA, Hviid L, Akanmori BD, 2000. Haptoglobin 1–1 is associated with susceptibility to severe Plasmodium falciparum malaria. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 94 :216–219.
-
29
Aucan C, Walley AJ, Greenwood BM, Hill AV, 2002. Haptoglobin genotypes are not associated with resistance to severe malaria in The Gambia. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 96 :327–328.
-
30
Bienzle U, Eggelte TA, Adjei LA, Dietz E, Ehrhardt S, Cramer JP, Otchwemah RN, Mockenhaupt FP, 2005. Limited influence of haptoglobin genotypes on severe malaria in Ghanaian children. Trop Med Int Health 10 :668–671.
-
31
Atkinson SH, Rockett K, Sirugo G, Bejon PA, Fulford A, O’Connell MA, Bailey R, Kwiatkowski DP, Prentice AM, 2006. Seasonal childhood anaemia in West Africa is associated with the haptoglobin 2–2 genotype. PLoS Med 3 :e172.
-
32
Kwiatkowski D, Hill AV, Sambou I, Twumasi P, Castracane J, Manogue KR, Cerami A, Brewster DR, Greenwood BM, 1990. TNF concentration in fatal cerebral, non-fatal cerebral and uncomplicated malaria. Lancet 336 :1201–1204.
-
33
Perkins DJ, Weinberg JB, Kremsner PG, 2000. Reduced inter-leukin-12 and transforming growth factor-β1 in severe childhood malaria: relationship of cytokine balance with disease severity. J Infect Dis 182 :998–992.
-
34
Wenisch C, Parschalk B, Burgmann H, Looareesuwan S, Graninger W, 1995. Decreased serum levels of TGF-beta in patients with acute Plasmodium falciparum malaria. J Clin Immunol 15 :69–73.
-
35
Dodoo D, Omer FM, Todd J, Akanmori BD, Koram KA, Riley EM, 2002. Absolute levels and ratios of proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokine production in vitro predict clinical immunity to Plasmodium falciparum malaria. J Infect Dis 185 :971–979.
-
36
Lewallen S, Taylor TE, Molyneux ME, Wills BA, Courtright P, 1993. Ocular fundus findings in Malawian children with cerebral malaria. Ophthalmology 100 :857–861.
-
37
Beare NA, Southern C, Chalira C, Taylor TE, Molyneux ME, Harding SP, 2004. Prognostic significance and course of retinopathy in children with severe malaria. Arch Ophthalmol 122 :1141–1147.
-
38
Alonso PL, Lindsay SW, Armstrong JR, Conteh M, Hill AG, David PH, Fegan G, de Francisco A, Hall AJ, Shenton FC, 1991. The effect of insecticide-treated bed nets on mortality of Gambian children. Lancet 337 :1499–1502.
-
39
Binka FN, Kubaje A, Adjuik M, Williams LA, Lengeler C, Maude GH, Armah GE, Kajihara B, Adiamah JH, Smith PG, 1996. Impact of permethrin-impregnated bed nets on child mortality in Kassena-Nankana District, Ghana: a randomized controlled trial. Trop Med Int Hlth 1 :147–154.
-
40
Snow RW, Korenromp EL, Gouws E, 2004. Pediatric mortality in Africa: Plasmodium falciparum malaria as a cause or risk? Am J Trop Med Hyg 71 (Suppl 2):16–24.
| Past two years | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 16 | 16 | 10 |
| Full Text Views | 217 | 100 | 1 |
| PDF Downloads | 34 | 22 | 0 |