Authors:
, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , and
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RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
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-
1
Sack DA, Sack RB, Nair GB, Siddique AK, 2004. Cholera. Lancet 363 :223–233.
-
2
Siddique AK, 1995. Failure of treatment centres to prevent cholera deaths in Goma. Lancet 346 :379.
-
5
Wachsmuth I, Blake P, Olsvik O, 1994. Vibrio Cholerae and Cholera–Molecular to Global Perspectives. Chapter 19–The Epidemiology of Cholera in Africa. Swerlow DL, Isaacson M (eds). Washington, DC: ASM Press.
-
6
WHO, 2000. WHO Report on Global Surveillance of Epidemic-Prone Infectious Diseases. Geneva: World Health Organization, 1–43.
-
7
WHO, 1961. Cholera in 1960. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 36 :150–151.
-
8
WHO, 1962. Cholera in 1961. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 37 :254–256.
-
9
WHO, 1964. Cholera in 1963. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 39 :478–486.
-
10
WHO, 1970. Cholera in 1969. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 45 :269–271.
-
11
WHO, 2000. Cholera, 1999. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 31 :249–256.
-
12
WHO, 2001. Cholera, 2000. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 76 :233–240.
-
13
WHO, 2002. Cholera, 2001. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 31 :257–268.
-
14
WHO, 2003. Cholera, 2002. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 78 :269–276.
-
15
WHO, 2004. Cholera, 2003. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 79 :281–288.
-
16
WHO, 2005. Cholera, 2004. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 80 :223–233.
-
17
WHO, 2006. Cholera 2005. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 81 :297–308.
-
18
WHO, 1971. Cholera in 1970. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 46 :325–336.
-
19
United Nations, 2004. The World Population Prospects, the 2004 Revision. United Nations Department of Education and Social Affairs. New York: United Nations.
-
20
WHO, 1999. Cholera, 1998. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 31 :257–264.
-
21
WHO, 2006. Cholera, Angola-Update. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 81 :237–240.
-
22
WHO, 2006. Cholera, Southern Sudan-Update. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 81 :118.
-
23
Guerrant RL, Carneiro-Filho BA, Dillingham RA, 2003. Cholera, diarrhea, and oral rehydration therapy: triumph and indictment. Clin Infect Dis 37 :398–405.
-
24
CDC, 2004. Cholera epidemic associated with raw vegetables–Lusaka, Zambia, 2003–2004. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 53 :783–786.
-
25
Moszynski P, 2006. Cholera outbreak highlights poor health services in southern Sudan. BMJ 332 :570.
-
26
WHO and UNICEF, 2005. Water for Life. Making it Happen. Geneva: World Health Organization and UNICEF.
-
27
WHO and UNICEF, 2006. Meeting the MDG Drinking Water and Sanitation Target: The Urban and Rural Challenge of the Decade. Geneva, New York: World Health Organization and UNICEF.
-
28
Alcayaga S, Alcayaga J, Gassibe K, 1993. Changes in the morbidity profile of certain enteric infections after the cholera epidemic. Rev Chile Infect 1 :5–10.
-
29
Sepulveda J, Valdespino JL, Garcia-Garcia L, 2006. Cholera in Mexico: the paradoxical benefits of the last pandemic. Int J Infect Dis 10 :4–13.
-
30
Mintz E, Bartram J, Lochery P, Wegelin M, 2001. Not just a drop in the bucket: expanding access to point-of-use water treatment systems. Am J Public Health 91 :1565–1570.
-
31
Reiff FM, Roses M, Venczel L, Quick R, Witt VM, 1996. Low-cost safe water for the world: a practical interim solution. J Public Health Policy 17 :389–408.
-
32
Lantagne D, Quick R, Mintz E, 2007. Household water treatment and safe storage options in developing countries: a review of current implementation practices. Water stories: expanding opportunities in small-scale water and sanitation projects. Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, 17–38.
-
33
Reller ME, Mong YJ, Hoekstra RM, Quick RE, 2001. Cholera prevention with traditional and novel water treatment methods: an outbreak investigation in Fort-Dauphin, Madagascar. Am J Public Health 91 :1608–1610.
-
34
Conroy RM, Meegan ME, Joyce T, McGuigan K, Barnes J, 2001. Solar disinfection of drinking water protects against cholera in children under 6 years of age. Arch Dis Child 85 :293–295.
-
35
Colwell RR, Huq A, Sirajul Islam M, Aziz KMA, Yunus M, Mahmud A, Sack RB, Nair GB, Chakraborty J, Sack DA, Russek-Cohen E, 2003. Reduction of cholera in Bangladeshi villages by simple filtration. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 100 :1051–1055.
-
36
Van Lerberghe W, de Bethune X, De Brouwere V, 1997. Hospitals in sub-Saharan Africa: why we need more of what does not work as it should. Trop Med Int Health 2 :799–808.
-
37
WHO, 2006. Health Workers: A Global Profile. The World Health Report. Geneva: World Health Organization.
-
38
International Road Federation, 2001. World Road Statistics. Geneva: International Road Federation.
-
39
Forsberg BC, Petzold MG, Tomson G, Allebeck P, 2007. Diarrhoea case management in low- and middle-income countries–an unfinished agenda. Bull World Health Organ 85 :42–48.
-
40
Ram PK, Choi M, Blum LS, Wamae A, Mintz ED, Bartlett AV, 2007. 2006 Declines in diarrhoea case management. Bull World Health Organ In press.
-
41
Luckham R, Ahmed I, Muggah R, White S, 2001. Conflict and poverty in Sub-Saharan Africa: an assessment of the issues and evidence. Institute of Development Studies Working Paper 128.
-
42
Swerdlow DM, Begkoyian G, Nyangulu G, Toole D, Waldman RJ, Puhr DN, Tauxe RV, 1997. Epidemic cholera among refugees in Malawi, Africa: treatment and transmission. Epidemiol Infect 118 :207–214.
-
43
WHO, 1994. Cholera in 1993. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 69 :205–212.
-
44
Siddique AK, Salam A, Islam MS, Akram K, Majumdar RN, Zaman K, Fronczak N, Laston S, 1995. Why treatment centres failed to prevent cholera deaths among Rwandan refugees in Goma, Zaire. Lancet 345 :359–361.
-
45
Goma Epidemiology Group, 1995. Public health impact of Rwandan refugee crisis: what happened in Goma, Zaire, in July 1994? Lancet 339–344.
-
46
Ackers ML, Quick RE, Drasbek CJ, Hutwagner L, Tauxe RV, 1998. Are there national risk factors for epidemic cholera? The correlation between socioeconomic and demographic indices and cholera incidence in Latin America. Int J Epidemiol 27 :330–334.
-
47
United Nations Development Programme, 2003. Human Development Report 2003. New York: United Nations Development Programme. Available at: http://hdr.undp.org/reports/global/2003/pdf/hdr03_HDI.pdf. Accessed August 15, 2007.
-
48
Rahmathullah L, Underwood BA, Thulasiraj RD, Milton RC, Ramaswamy K, Rahmathullah R, Babu G, 1990. Reduced mortality among children in southern India receiving a small weekly dose of vitamin A [see comment]. N Engl J Med 323 :929–935.
-
49
Sommer A, Katz J, Tarwotjo I, 1984. Increased risk of respiratory disease and diarrhea in children with preexisting mild vitamin A deficiency. Am J Clin Nutr 40 :1090–1095.
-
50
WHO, 1995. The global prevalence of micronutrient deficiency. Micronutrient Deficiency Information Systems Working Paper 2:WHO/NUT/95 3. Geneva. Available at: http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2004/9241546123.pdf. Accessed April 2007.
-
51
UNICEF, 2007. Vitamin A Deficiency: The Challenge UNICEF Statistics. Available at: http://www.childinfo.org/areas/vitamina/. Accessed April 2007.
-
52
Legros D, Paquet C, Perea W, Marty I, Kenya Mugisha N, Royer H, Neira M, Ivanoff B, 1999. Mass vaccination with a two-dose oral cholera vaccine in a refugee camp. Bull World Health Organ 77 :837–842.
-
53
Perry RT, Plowe CV, Koumare B, Bougoudogo F, Kotloff KL, Losonsky GA, Wasserman SS, Levine MM, 1998. A single dose of live oral cholera vaccine CVD 103-HgR is safe and immunogenic in HIV-infected and HIV-noninfected adults in Mali. Bull World Health Organ 76 :63–71.
-
54
Lucas ME, Deen JL, von Seidlein L, Wang XY, Ampuero J, Puri M, Ali M, Ansaruzzaman M, Amos J, Macuamule A, Cavailler P, Guerin PJ, Mahoudeau C, Kahozi-Sangwa P, Chaignat CL, Barreto A, Songane FF, Clemens JD, 2005. Effectiveness of mass oral cholera vaccination in Beira, Mozambique. N Engl J Med 352 :757–767.
-
55
Cookson ST, Stamboulian D, Demonte J, Quero L, Martinez de Arquiza C, Aleman A, Lepetic A, Levine MM, 1997. A cost-benefit analysis of programmatic use of CVD 103-HgR live oral cholera vaccine in a high-risk population. Int J Epidemiol 26 :212–219.
-
56
WHO, 2001. Cholera vaccines. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 76 :117–124.
-
57
WHO, 2007. Cholera surveillance and number of cases. Available at: http://www.who.int/topics/cholera/surveillance/en/index.html. Accessed May 2007.
-
58
Griffith DC, Kelly-Hope LA, Miller MA, 2006. Review of reported cholera outbreaks worldwide, 1995–2005. Am J Trop Med Hyg 75 :973–977.
-
59
WHO, 2005. International Health Regulations. Available at: http://www.who.int/csr/ihr/en/index.html. Accessed August 15, 2007.
-
60
United Nations, 2005. The Millennium Development Goals Report, 2005. New York: United Nations, 1–48.
| Past two years | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 1071 | 977 | 218 |
| Full Text Views | 188 | 3 | 0 |
| PDF Downloads | 90 | 4 | 0 |
Cholera: A New Homeland in Africa?
Nicholas H. Gaffga
Nicholas H. Gaffga
Enteric Disease Epidemiology Branch, Division of Foodborne, Mycotic, and Enteric Diseases, National Center for Zoonotic, Vectorborne, and Enteric Diseases, Coordinating Center for Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA
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Robert V. Tauxe
Robert V. Tauxe
Enteric Disease Epidemiology Branch, Division of Foodborne, Mycotic, and Enteric Diseases, National Center for Zoonotic, Vectorborne, and Enteric Diseases, Coordinating Center for Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA
Search for other papers by Robert V. Tauxe in
Current site
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Current site
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Eric D. Mintz
Eric D. Mintz
Enteric Disease Epidemiology Branch, Division of Foodborne, Mycotic, and Enteric Diseases, National Center for Zoonotic, Vectorborne, and Enteric Diseases, Coordinating Center for Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA
Search for other papers by Eric D. Mintz in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Search for other papers by Eric D. Mintz in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed
Cholera was largely eliminated from industrialized countries by water and sewage treatment over a century ago. Today it remains a significant cause of morbidity and mortality in developing countries, where it is a marker for inadequate drinking water and sanitation infrastructure. Death from cholera can be prevented through simple treatment—oral, or in severe cases, intravenous rehydration. The cholera case-fatality rate therefore reflects access to basic health care. We reviewed World Health Organization (WHO) data on cholera cases and deaths reported between 1960 and 2005. In the 1960s, at the beginning of the seventh and current cholera pandemic, cholera had an exclusively Asian focus. In 1970, the pandemic reached sub-Saharan Africa, where it has remained entrenched. In 1991, the seventh pandemic reached Latin America, resulting in nearly 1 million reported cases from the region within 3 years. In contrast to the persisting situation in Africa, cholera was largely eliminated from Latin America within a decade. In 2005, 31 (78%) of the 40 countries that reported indigenous cases of cholera to WHO were in sub-Saharan Africa. The reported incidence of indigenous cholera in sub-Saharan Africa in 2005 (166 cases/million population) was 95 times higher than the reported incidence in Asia (1.74 cases/million population) and 16,600 times higher than the reported incidence in Latin America (0.01 cases/million population). In that same year, the cholera case fatality rate in sub-Saharan Africa (1.8%) was 3 times higher than that in Asia (0.6%); no cholera deaths were reported in Latin America. The persistence or control of cholera in Africa will be a key indicator of global efforts to reach the Millennium Development Goals and of recent commitments by leaders of the G-8 countries to increase development aid to the region.
Author Notes
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1
Sack DA, Sack RB, Nair GB, Siddique AK, 2004. Cholera. Lancet 363 :223–233.
-
2
Siddique AK, 1995. Failure of treatment centres to prevent cholera deaths in Goma. Lancet 346 :379.
-
5
Wachsmuth I, Blake P, Olsvik O, 1994. Vibrio Cholerae and Cholera–Molecular to Global Perspectives. Chapter 19–The Epidemiology of Cholera in Africa. Swerlow DL, Isaacson M (eds). Washington, DC: ASM Press.
-
6
WHO, 2000. WHO Report on Global Surveillance of Epidemic-Prone Infectious Diseases. Geneva: World Health Organization, 1–43.
-
7
WHO, 1961. Cholera in 1960. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 36 :150–151.
-
8
WHO, 1962. Cholera in 1961. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 37 :254–256.
-
9
WHO, 1964. Cholera in 1963. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 39 :478–486.
-
10
WHO, 1970. Cholera in 1969. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 45 :269–271.
-
11
WHO, 2000. Cholera, 1999. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 31 :249–256.
-
12
WHO, 2001. Cholera, 2000. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 76 :233–240.
-
13
WHO, 2002. Cholera, 2001. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 31 :257–268.
-
14
WHO, 2003. Cholera, 2002. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 78 :269–276.
-
15
WHO, 2004. Cholera, 2003. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 79 :281–288.
-
16
WHO, 2005. Cholera, 2004. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 80 :223–233.
-
17
WHO, 2006. Cholera 2005. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 81 :297–308.
-
18
WHO, 1971. Cholera in 1970. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 46 :325–336.
-
19
United Nations, 2004. The World Population Prospects, the 2004 Revision. United Nations Department of Education and Social Affairs. New York: United Nations.
-
20
WHO, 1999. Cholera, 1998. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 31 :257–264.
-
21
WHO, 2006. Cholera, Angola-Update. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 81 :237–240.
-
22
WHO, 2006. Cholera, Southern Sudan-Update. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 81 :118.
-
23
Guerrant RL, Carneiro-Filho BA, Dillingham RA, 2003. Cholera, diarrhea, and oral rehydration therapy: triumph and indictment. Clin Infect Dis 37 :398–405.
-
24
CDC, 2004. Cholera epidemic associated with raw vegetables–Lusaka, Zambia, 2003–2004. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 53 :783–786.
-
25
Moszynski P, 2006. Cholera outbreak highlights poor health services in southern Sudan. BMJ 332 :570.
-
26
WHO and UNICEF, 2005. Water for Life. Making it Happen. Geneva: World Health Organization and UNICEF.
-
27
WHO and UNICEF, 2006. Meeting the MDG Drinking Water and Sanitation Target: The Urban and Rural Challenge of the Decade. Geneva, New York: World Health Organization and UNICEF.
-
28
Alcayaga S, Alcayaga J, Gassibe K, 1993. Changes in the morbidity profile of certain enteric infections after the cholera epidemic. Rev Chile Infect 1 :5–10.
-
29
Sepulveda J, Valdespino JL, Garcia-Garcia L, 2006. Cholera in Mexico: the paradoxical benefits of the last pandemic. Int J Infect Dis 10 :4–13.
-
30
Mintz E, Bartram J, Lochery P, Wegelin M, 2001. Not just a drop in the bucket: expanding access to point-of-use water treatment systems. Am J Public Health 91 :1565–1570.
-
31
Reiff FM, Roses M, Venczel L, Quick R, Witt VM, 1996. Low-cost safe water for the world: a practical interim solution. J Public Health Policy 17 :389–408.
-
32
Lantagne D, Quick R, Mintz E, 2007. Household water treatment and safe storage options in developing countries: a review of current implementation practices. Water stories: expanding opportunities in small-scale water and sanitation projects. Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, 17–38.
-
33
Reller ME, Mong YJ, Hoekstra RM, Quick RE, 2001. Cholera prevention with traditional and novel water treatment methods: an outbreak investigation in Fort-Dauphin, Madagascar. Am J Public Health 91 :1608–1610.
-
34
Conroy RM, Meegan ME, Joyce T, McGuigan K, Barnes J, 2001. Solar disinfection of drinking water protects against cholera in children under 6 years of age. Arch Dis Child 85 :293–295.
-
35
Colwell RR, Huq A, Sirajul Islam M, Aziz KMA, Yunus M, Mahmud A, Sack RB, Nair GB, Chakraborty J, Sack DA, Russek-Cohen E, 2003. Reduction of cholera in Bangladeshi villages by simple filtration. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 100 :1051–1055.
-
36
Van Lerberghe W, de Bethune X, De Brouwere V, 1997. Hospitals in sub-Saharan Africa: why we need more of what does not work as it should. Trop Med Int Health 2 :799–808.
-
37
WHO, 2006. Health Workers: A Global Profile. The World Health Report. Geneva: World Health Organization.
-
38
International Road Federation, 2001. World Road Statistics. Geneva: International Road Federation.
-
39
Forsberg BC, Petzold MG, Tomson G, Allebeck P, 2007. Diarrhoea case management in low- and middle-income countries–an unfinished agenda. Bull World Health Organ 85 :42–48.
-
40
Ram PK, Choi M, Blum LS, Wamae A, Mintz ED, Bartlett AV, 2007. 2006 Declines in diarrhoea case management. Bull World Health Organ In press.
-
41
Luckham R, Ahmed I, Muggah R, White S, 2001. Conflict and poverty in Sub-Saharan Africa: an assessment of the issues and evidence. Institute of Development Studies Working Paper 128.
-
42
Swerdlow DM, Begkoyian G, Nyangulu G, Toole D, Waldman RJ, Puhr DN, Tauxe RV, 1997. Epidemic cholera among refugees in Malawi, Africa: treatment and transmission. Epidemiol Infect 118 :207–214.
-
43
WHO, 1994. Cholera in 1993. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 69 :205–212.
-
44
Siddique AK, Salam A, Islam MS, Akram K, Majumdar RN, Zaman K, Fronczak N, Laston S, 1995. Why treatment centres failed to prevent cholera deaths among Rwandan refugees in Goma, Zaire. Lancet 345 :359–361.
-
45
Goma Epidemiology Group, 1995. Public health impact of Rwandan refugee crisis: what happened in Goma, Zaire, in July 1994? Lancet 339–344.
-
46
Ackers ML, Quick RE, Drasbek CJ, Hutwagner L, Tauxe RV, 1998. Are there national risk factors for epidemic cholera? The correlation between socioeconomic and demographic indices and cholera incidence in Latin America. Int J Epidemiol 27 :330–334.
-
47
United Nations Development Programme, 2003. Human Development Report 2003. New York: United Nations Development Programme. Available at: http://hdr.undp.org/reports/global/2003/pdf/hdr03_HDI.pdf. Accessed August 15, 2007.
-
48
Rahmathullah L, Underwood BA, Thulasiraj RD, Milton RC, Ramaswamy K, Rahmathullah R, Babu G, 1990. Reduced mortality among children in southern India receiving a small weekly dose of vitamin A [see comment]. N Engl J Med 323 :929–935.
-
49
Sommer A, Katz J, Tarwotjo I, 1984. Increased risk of respiratory disease and diarrhea in children with preexisting mild vitamin A deficiency. Am J Clin Nutr 40 :1090–1095.
-
50
WHO, 1995. The global prevalence of micronutrient deficiency. Micronutrient Deficiency Information Systems Working Paper 2:WHO/NUT/95 3. Geneva. Available at: http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2004/9241546123.pdf. Accessed April 2007.
-
51
UNICEF, 2007. Vitamin A Deficiency: The Challenge UNICEF Statistics. Available at: http://www.childinfo.org/areas/vitamina/. Accessed April 2007.
-
52
Legros D, Paquet C, Perea W, Marty I, Kenya Mugisha N, Royer H, Neira M, Ivanoff B, 1999. Mass vaccination with a two-dose oral cholera vaccine in a refugee camp. Bull World Health Organ 77 :837–842.
-
53
Perry RT, Plowe CV, Koumare B, Bougoudogo F, Kotloff KL, Losonsky GA, Wasserman SS, Levine MM, 1998. A single dose of live oral cholera vaccine CVD 103-HgR is safe and immunogenic in HIV-infected and HIV-noninfected adults in Mali. Bull World Health Organ 76 :63–71.
-
54
Lucas ME, Deen JL, von Seidlein L, Wang XY, Ampuero J, Puri M, Ali M, Ansaruzzaman M, Amos J, Macuamule A, Cavailler P, Guerin PJ, Mahoudeau C, Kahozi-Sangwa P, Chaignat CL, Barreto A, Songane FF, Clemens JD, 2005. Effectiveness of mass oral cholera vaccination in Beira, Mozambique. N Engl J Med 352 :757–767.
-
55
Cookson ST, Stamboulian D, Demonte J, Quero L, Martinez de Arquiza C, Aleman A, Lepetic A, Levine MM, 1997. A cost-benefit analysis of programmatic use of CVD 103-HgR live oral cholera vaccine in a high-risk population. Int J Epidemiol 26 :212–219.
-
56
WHO, 2001. Cholera vaccines. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 76 :117–124.
-
57
WHO, 2007. Cholera surveillance and number of cases. Available at: http://www.who.int/topics/cholera/surveillance/en/index.html. Accessed May 2007.
-
58
Griffith DC, Kelly-Hope LA, Miller MA, 2006. Review of reported cholera outbreaks worldwide, 1995–2005. Am J Trop Med Hyg 75 :973–977.
-
59
WHO, 2005. International Health Regulations. Available at: http://www.who.int/csr/ihr/en/index.html. Accessed August 15, 2007.
-
60
United Nations, 2005. The Millennium Development Goals Report, 2005. New York: United Nations, 1–48.
| Past two years | Past Year | Past 30 Days | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abstract Views | 1071 | 977 | 218 |
| Full Text Views | 188 | 3 | 0 |
| PDF Downloads | 90 | 4 | 0 |