- INTRODUCTION
- MATERIALS AND METHODS
- Study area.
- Collection of mosquitoes.
- Specimen processing and morphologic identification of mosquitoes.
- DNA isolation from blood-fed mosquitoes.
- Blood-meal identification.
- Statistical analysis.
- Detection of WNV in blood-fed mosquitoes.
- Detection of WNV in non-blooded mosquitoes.
- Bird population estimates.
- Surveillance for WNV activity in avian population.
- RESULTS
- DISCUSSION
- REFERENCES
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1
Anderson JF, Andreadis TG, Vossbrinck CR, Tirrell S, Wakem EM, French RA, Garmendia AE, Van Kruiningen HJ, 1999. Isolation of West Nile virus from mosquitoes, crows, and a Cooper’s hawk in Connecticut. Science 286 :2331–2333.
-
2
Lanciotti RS, Roehrig JT, Deubel V, Smith J, Parker M, Steele K, Crise B, Volpe KE, Crabtree MB, Scherret JH, Hall RA, MacKenzie JS, Cropp CB, Panigrahy B, Ostlund E, Schmitt B, Malkinson M, Banet C, Weissman J, Komar N, Savage HM, Stone W, McNamara T, Gubler DJ, 1999. Origin of the West Nile virus responsible for an outbreak of encephalitis in the northeastern United States. Science 286 :2333–2337.
-
3
Lillibridge KM, Parsons R, Randle Y, Travassos da Rosa AP, Guzman H, Siirin M, Wuithiranyagool T, Hailey C, Higgs S, Bala AA, Pascua R, Meyer T, Vanlandingham DL, Tesh RB, 2004. The 2002 introduction of West Nile virus into Harris County, Texas, an area historically endemic for St. Louis encephalitis. Am J Trop Med Hyg 70 :676–681.
-
4
Tesh RB, Parsons R, Siirin M, Randle Y, Sargent C, Guzman H, Wuithiranyagool T, Higgs S, Vanlandingham DL, Bala AA, Haas K, Zerinque B, 2004. Year-round West Nile virus activity, Gulf Coast region, Texas and Louisiana. Emerg Infect Dis 10 :1649–1652.
-
5
Templis CH, Hayes RO, Hess AD, Reeves WC, 1970. Blood-feeding habits of four species of mosquito found in Hawaii. Am J Trop Med Hyg 19 :335–341.
-
6
Horsfall WR, 1972. Mosquitoes: Their Bionomics and Relation to Disease. New York: Hafner Publ. Co.
-
7
Edman JD, Webber LA, Kale HW II, 1972. Host-feeding patterns of Florida mosquitoes. II. Culiseta.J Med Entomol 9 :429–434.
-
8
Bohart RM, Washino RK, 1978. Mosquitoes of California. Berkeley: University of California, Division of Agricultural Sciences.
-
9
Kay BH, Boreham PF, Fanning ID, 1985. Host-feeding patterns of Culex annulirostris and other mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) at Charleville, southwestern Queensland, Australia. J Med Entomol 22 :529–535.
-
10
Reisen WK, Reeves WC, 1990. Bionomics and ecology of Culex tarsalis and other potential mosquito vector species. In Reeves WC, ed. Epidemiology and Control of Mosquito-Borne Arboviruses in California, 1943–1987. Sacramento: California Vector Control Association, 254–329.
-
11
Irby WS, Apperson CS, 1988. Host of mosquitoes in the coastal plain of North Carolina. J Med Entomol 25 :85–93.
-
12
Beier JC, Odago WO, Onyango FK, Asiago CM, Koech DK, Roberts CR, 1990. Relative abundance and blood feeding behavior of nocturnally active culicine mosquitoes in western Kenya. J Am Mosq Control Assoc 6 :207–212.
-
13
Niebylski ML, Meek CL, 1992. Blood-feeding of Culex mosquitoes in an urban environment. J Am Mosq Control Assoc 8 :173–177.
-
14
Loftin KM, Byford RL, Loftin MJ, Craig ME, Steiner RL, 1997. Host preference of mosquitoes in Bernalillo County, New Mexico. J Am Mosq Control Assoc 13 :71–75.
-
15
Dixit V, Gupta AK, Kataria OM, Prasad GB, 2001. Host preference of Culex quinquefasciatus in Raipur city of Chattisgarh state. J Commun Dis 33 :17–22.
-
16
Kumar K, Katyal R, Gill KS, 2002. Feeding pattern of anopheline and culicine mosquitoes in relation to biotopes and seasons in Delhi and environs. J Commun Dis 34 :59–64.
-
17
Gomes AC, Silva NN, Marques GR, Brito M, 2003. Host-feeding patterns of potential human disease vectors in the Paraiba Valley region, State of Sao Paulo, Brazil. J Vector Ecol 28 :74–78.
-
18
Samuel PP, Arunachalam N, Hiriyan J, Thenmozhi V, Gajanana A, Satyanarayana K, 2004. Host-feeding pattern of Culex quinquefasciatus Say and Mansonia annulifera (Theobald) (Diptera: Culicidae), the major vectors of filariasis in a rural area of south India. J Med Entomol 41 :442–446.
-
19
Zinser M, Ramberg F, Willott E, 2004. Culex quinquefasciatus (Diptera: Culicidae) as a potential West Nile virus vector in Tucson, Arizona: blood meal analysis indicates feeding on both humans and birds. J Insect Sci 4 :20.
-
20
Parsons R, 2003. Mosquito control—Texas style. Wing Beats 14 :4–38.
-
21
Darsie RF Jr, Ward RA, 1981. Identification and geographic distribution of mosquitoes of North America, north of Mexico. Mosq Syst Suppl 1 :1–313.
-
22
Molaei G, Andreadis TG, Armstrong PM, Anderson JF, Vossbrinck CR, 2006. Host feeding patterns of Culex mosquitoes and West Nile virus transmission, northeastern United States. Emerg Infect Dis 12 :468–474.
-
23
Molaei G, Andreadis TG, 2006. Identification of avian- and mammalian-derived bloodmeals in Aedes vexans and Culiseta melanura (Diptera: Culicidae) and its implication for West Nile virus transmission in Connecticut, USA. J Med Entomol 43 :1088–1093.
-
24
Molaei G, Oliver J, Andreadis TG, Armstrong PM, Howard JJ, 2006. Molecular identification of blood meal sources in Culiseta melanura and Culiseta morsitans from a focus of Eastern equine encephalomyelitis (EEE) virus transmission in New York, USA. Am J Trop Med Hyg 75 :1140–1147.
-
25
Lanciotti RS, Kerst AJ, Nasci RS, Godsey MS, Mitchell CJ, Savage HM, Komar N, Panella NA, Allen BC, Volpe KE, Davis BS, Roehrig JT, 2000. Rapid detection of West Nile virus from human clinical specimens, field-collected mosquitoes, and avian samples by a TaqMan reverse transcriptase-PCR assay. J Clin Microbiol 8 :4066–4071.
-
26
Andreadis TG, Anderson JF, Vossbrinck CR, Main AJ, 2004. Epidemiology of West Nile virus in Connecticut: a five-year analysis of mosquito data, 1999–2003. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 44 :360–378.
-
27
Kay BH, Boreham PFL, William GM, 1979. Host preference and feeding patterns of mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) at Kowanyama, Cape York Peninsula, northern Queensland. Bull Entomol Res 69 :441–457.
-
28
Lee DJ, Clinton KJ, O’Gower AK, 1954. The blood sources of some Australian mosquitoes. Aust J Biol Sci 7 :282–301.
-
29
Tempelis CH, 1975. Host-feeding patterns of mosquitoes with a review of advances in analysis of blood meals by serology. J Med Entomol 11 :635–653.
-
30
Apperson CS, Hassan HK, Harrison BA, Savage HM, Aspen SE, Farajollahi A, Crans W, Daniels TJ, Falco RC, Benedict M, Anderson M, McMillen L, Unnasch TR, 2004. Host feeding patterns of established and potential mosquito vectors of West Nile virus in the eastern United States. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 4 :71–82.
-
31
Komar N, Langevin S, Hinten S, Nemeth N, Edwards E, Hettler D, Davis B, Bowen R, Bunning M, 2003. Experimental infection of North American birds with the New York 1999 strain of West Nile virus. Emerg Infect Dis 9 :311–322.
-
32
Bernard KA, Maffei JG, Jones SA, Kauffman EB, Ebel G, Dupuis AP 2nd, Ngo KA, Nicholas DC, Young DM, Shi PY, Kulasekera VL, Eidson M, White DJ, Stone WB, Kramer LD, NY State West Nile Virus Surveillance Team, 2001. West Nile virus infection in birds and mosquitoes, New York State, 2000. Emerg Infect Dis 7 :679–685.
-
33
Lord CC, Rutledge CR, Tabachnick WJ, 2006. Relationships between host viremia and vector susceptibility for arboviruses. J Med Entomol 43 :623–630.
-
34
Reisen WK, Feng Y, Martinez V, 2007. Is non-viremic transmission of West Nile virus by Culex mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) non-viremic? J Med Entomol 44 :299–302.
-
35
Apperson CS, Harrison BA, Unnasch TR, Hassan HK, Irby WS, Savage HM, Aspen SE, Watson DW, Rueda LM, Engber BR, Nasci RS, 2002. Host-feeding habits of Culex and other mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) in the Borough of Queens in New York City, with characters and techniques for identification of Culex mosquitoes. J Med Entomol 39 :777–785.
-
36
Eidson M, Komar N, Sorhage F, Nelson R, Talbot T, Mostashari F, McLean R, and the West Nile virus Avian Mortality Surveillance Group, 2001. Crow deaths as a sentinel surveillance system for West Nile virus in the northeastern United States, 1999. Emerg Infect Dis 7 :615–620.
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37
Brault AC, Langevin SA, Bowen R, Panella NA, Biggerstaff BJ, Miller BR, Komar N, 2004. Differential virulence of West Nile strains for American crows. Emerg Infect Dis 10 :2161–2168.
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38
Reisen WK, Barker CM, Carney R, Lothrop HD, Wheeler SS, Wilson JL, Madon MB, Takahashi R, Carroll B, Garcia S, Fang Y, Shafii M, Kahl N, Ashtari S, Kramer V, Glaser C, Jean C, 2006. Role of corvids in epidemiology of West Nile virus in southern California. J Med Entomol 43 :356–367.
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39
Sbrana E, Tonry JH, Xiao SY, Travassos da Rosa APA, Higgs S, Tesh RB, 2005. Oral transmission of West Nile virus in a hamster model. Am J Trop Med Hyg 72 :325–329.
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40
Klenk K, Snow J, Morgan K, Bowen R, Stephens M, Foster F, Gordy P, Beckett S, Komar N, Gubler D, Bunning M, 2004. Alligators as West Nile virus amplifiers. Emerg Infect Dis 10 :2150–2155.
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41
Madge S, Burn H, 1994. Crows and Jays. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
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42
Petersen LR, 2005. West Nile virus. Scheld WM, Hooper DC, Hughes JM, eds. Emerging Infections, Vol. 7. Washington, DC: ASM Press, 99–119.
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Komar N, Burns J, Dean C, Panella NA, Dusza S, Cherry B, 2001. Serologic evidence for West Nile virus infection in birds in Staten Island, New York, after an outbreak in 2000. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 1 :191–196.
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44
Hayes CG, 1998. West Nile fever. In Monath TP, editor. The Arboviruses: Epidemiology and Ecology, Vol. V. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 59–88.
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45
Blackburn NK, Reyers F, Berry WL, Shepherd AJ, 1989. Susceptibility of dogs to West Nile virus: a survey and pathogenicity trial. J Comp Pathol 100 :59–66.
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46
Austgen LE, Bowen RA, Bunning ML, Davis BS, Mitchell CJ, Chang GJ, 2004. Experimental infection of cats and dogs with West Nile virus. Emerg Infect Dis 10 :82–86.
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47
Bowen RA, Rouge MM, Siger L, Minke JM, Nordgren R, Karaca K, Johnson J, 2006. Pathogenesis of West Nile virus infection in dogs treated with glucocorticoids. Am J Trop Med Hyg 74 :670–673.
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48
Sardelis MR, Turell MJ, Dohm DJ, O’Guinn ML, 2001. Vector competence of selected North American Culex and Coquillettidia mosquitoes for West Nile virus. Emerg Infect Dis 7 :1018–1022.
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Goddard LB, Roth AE, Reisen WK, Scott TW, 2002. Vector competence of California mosquitoes for West Nile virus. Emerg Infect Dis 8 :1385–1391.
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50
Turell MJ, Dohm DJ, Sardelis MR, O’Guinn ML, Andreadis TG, Blow JA, 2005. An update on the potential of North American mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) to transmit West Nile Virus. J Med Entomol 42 :57–62.
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51
Reisen WK, Fang Y, Martinez VM, 2005. Avian host and mosquito (Diptera: Culicidae) vector competence determine the efficiency of West Nile and St. Louis encephalitis virus transmission. J Med Entomol 42 :367–375.
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Host Feeding Pattern of Culex quinquefasciatus (Diptera: Culicidae) and Its Role in Transmission of West Nile Virus in Harris County, Texas
Goudarz Molaei
Goudarz Molaei
The Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, New Haven, Connecticut; Mosquito Control Division, Harris County Public Health and Environmental Services, Houston, Texas; Department of Pathology and Center for Biodefense and Emerging Infectious Diseases, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas
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Theodore G. Andreadis
Theodore G. Andreadis
The Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, New Haven, Connecticut; Mosquito Control Division, Harris County Public Health and Environmental Services, Houston, Texas; Department of Pathology and Center for Biodefense and Emerging Infectious Diseases, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas
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Philip M. Armstrong
Philip M. Armstrong
The Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, New Haven, Connecticut; Mosquito Control Division, Harris County Public Health and Environmental Services, Houston, Texas; Department of Pathology and Center for Biodefense and Emerging Infectious Diseases, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas
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Rudy Bueno Jr.
Rudy Bueno Jr.
The Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, New Haven, Connecticut; Mosquito Control Division, Harris County Public Health and Environmental Services, Houston, Texas; Department of Pathology and Center for Biodefense and Emerging Infectious Diseases, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas
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James A. Dennett
James A. Dennett
The Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, New Haven, Connecticut; Mosquito Control Division, Harris County Public Health and Environmental Services, Houston, Texas; Department of Pathology and Center for Biodefense and Emerging Infectious Diseases, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas
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Susan V. Real
Susan V. Real
The Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, New Haven, Connecticut; Mosquito Control Division, Harris County Public Health and Environmental Services, Houston, Texas; Department of Pathology and Center for Biodefense and Emerging Infectious Diseases, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas
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Chris Sargent
Chris Sargent
The Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, New Haven, Connecticut; Mosquito Control Division, Harris County Public Health and Environmental Services, Houston, Texas; Department of Pathology and Center for Biodefense and Emerging Infectious Diseases, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas
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Adilelkhidir Bala
Adilelkhidir Bala
The Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, New Haven, Connecticut; Mosquito Control Division, Harris County Public Health and Environmental Services, Houston, Texas; Department of Pathology and Center for Biodefense and Emerging Infectious Diseases, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas
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Yvonne Randle
Yvonne Randle
The Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, New Haven, Connecticut; Mosquito Control Division, Harris County Public Health and Environmental Services, Houston, Texas; Department of Pathology and Center for Biodefense and Emerging Infectious Diseases, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas
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Hilda Guzman
Hilda Guzman
The Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, New Haven, Connecticut; Mosquito Control Division, Harris County Public Health and Environmental Services, Houston, Texas; Department of Pathology and Center for Biodefense and Emerging Infectious Diseases, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas
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Amelia Travassos da Rosa
Amelia Travassos da Rosa
The Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, New Haven, Connecticut; Mosquito Control Division, Harris County Public Health and Environmental Services, Houston, Texas; Department of Pathology and Center for Biodefense and Emerging Infectious Diseases, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas
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Taweesak Wuithiranyagool
Taweesak Wuithiranyagool
The Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, New Haven, Connecticut; Mosquito Control Division, Harris County Public Health and Environmental Services, Houston, Texas; Department of Pathology and Center for Biodefense and Emerging Infectious Diseases, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas
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Robert B. Tesh
Robert B. Tesh
The Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, New Haven, Connecticut; Mosquito Control Division, Harris County Public Health and Environmental Services, Houston, Texas; Department of Pathology and Center for Biodefense and Emerging Infectious Diseases, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas
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The vertebrate hosts of 672 blood-engorged Culex quinquefasciatus Say, collected in Harris County, Texas, during 2005, were identified by nucleotide sequencing PCR products of the cytochrome b gene. Analysis revealed that 39.1% had acquired blood from birds, 52.5% from mammals, and 8.3% were mixed avian and mammalian blood meals. Most frequent vertebrate hosts were dog (41.0%), mourning dove (18.3%), domestic cat (8.8%), white-winged dove (4.3%), house sparrow (3.2%), house finch (3.0%), gray catbird (3.0%), and American robin (2.5%). Results are interpreted in conjunction with concurrent avian and mosquito West Nile virus (WNV) surveillance activities in Harris County. We conclude that Cx. quinquefasciatus is an opportunistic feeder and principal mosquito vector of WNV in this metropolitan area; however, transmission by other mosquito species or by other modes of infection, such as ingestion, must account for the high WNV infection rates among local blue jays and American crows.
Author Notes
- INTRODUCTION
- MATERIALS AND METHODS
- Study area.
- Collection of mosquitoes.
- Specimen processing and morphologic identification of mosquitoes.
- DNA isolation from blood-fed mosquitoes.
- Blood-meal identification.
- Statistical analysis.
- Detection of WNV in blood-fed mosquitoes.
- Detection of WNV in non-blooded mosquitoes.
- Bird population estimates.
- Surveillance for WNV activity in avian population.
- RESULTS
- DISCUSSION
- REFERENCES
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1
Anderson JF, Andreadis TG, Vossbrinck CR, Tirrell S, Wakem EM, French RA, Garmendia AE, Van Kruiningen HJ, 1999. Isolation of West Nile virus from mosquitoes, crows, and a Cooper’s hawk in Connecticut. Science 286 :2331–2333.
-
2
Lanciotti RS, Roehrig JT, Deubel V, Smith J, Parker M, Steele K, Crise B, Volpe KE, Crabtree MB, Scherret JH, Hall RA, MacKenzie JS, Cropp CB, Panigrahy B, Ostlund E, Schmitt B, Malkinson M, Banet C, Weissman J, Komar N, Savage HM, Stone W, McNamara T, Gubler DJ, 1999. Origin of the West Nile virus responsible for an outbreak of encephalitis in the northeastern United States. Science 286 :2333–2337.
-
3
Lillibridge KM, Parsons R, Randle Y, Travassos da Rosa AP, Guzman H, Siirin M, Wuithiranyagool T, Hailey C, Higgs S, Bala AA, Pascua R, Meyer T, Vanlandingham DL, Tesh RB, 2004. The 2002 introduction of West Nile virus into Harris County, Texas, an area historically endemic for St. Louis encephalitis. Am J Trop Med Hyg 70 :676–681.
-
4
Tesh RB, Parsons R, Siirin M, Randle Y, Sargent C, Guzman H, Wuithiranyagool T, Higgs S, Vanlandingham DL, Bala AA, Haas K, Zerinque B, 2004. Year-round West Nile virus activity, Gulf Coast region, Texas and Louisiana. Emerg Infect Dis 10 :1649–1652.
-
5
Templis CH, Hayes RO, Hess AD, Reeves WC, 1970. Blood-feeding habits of four species of mosquito found in Hawaii. Am J Trop Med Hyg 19 :335–341.
-
6
Horsfall WR, 1972. Mosquitoes: Their Bionomics and Relation to Disease. New York: Hafner Publ. Co.
-
7
Edman JD, Webber LA, Kale HW II, 1972. Host-feeding patterns of Florida mosquitoes. II. Culiseta.J Med Entomol 9 :429–434.
-
8
Bohart RM, Washino RK, 1978. Mosquitoes of California. Berkeley: University of California, Division of Agricultural Sciences.
-
9
Kay BH, Boreham PF, Fanning ID, 1985. Host-feeding patterns of Culex annulirostris and other mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) at Charleville, southwestern Queensland, Australia. J Med Entomol 22 :529–535.
-
10
Reisen WK, Reeves WC, 1990. Bionomics and ecology of Culex tarsalis and other potential mosquito vector species. In Reeves WC, ed. Epidemiology and Control of Mosquito-Borne Arboviruses in California, 1943–1987. Sacramento: California Vector Control Association, 254–329.
-
11
Irby WS, Apperson CS, 1988. Host of mosquitoes in the coastal plain of North Carolina. J Med Entomol 25 :85–93.
-
12
Beier JC, Odago WO, Onyango FK, Asiago CM, Koech DK, Roberts CR, 1990. Relative abundance and blood feeding behavior of nocturnally active culicine mosquitoes in western Kenya. J Am Mosq Control Assoc 6 :207–212.
-
13
Niebylski ML, Meek CL, 1992. Blood-feeding of Culex mosquitoes in an urban environment. J Am Mosq Control Assoc 8 :173–177.
-
14
Loftin KM, Byford RL, Loftin MJ, Craig ME, Steiner RL, 1997. Host preference of mosquitoes in Bernalillo County, New Mexico. J Am Mosq Control Assoc 13 :71–75.
-
15
Dixit V, Gupta AK, Kataria OM, Prasad GB, 2001. Host preference of Culex quinquefasciatus in Raipur city of Chattisgarh state. J Commun Dis 33 :17–22.
-
16
Kumar K, Katyal R, Gill KS, 2002. Feeding pattern of anopheline and culicine mosquitoes in relation to biotopes and seasons in Delhi and environs. J Commun Dis 34 :59–64.
-
17
Gomes AC, Silva NN, Marques GR, Brito M, 2003. Host-feeding patterns of potential human disease vectors in the Paraiba Valley region, State of Sao Paulo, Brazil. J Vector Ecol 28 :74–78.
-
18
Samuel PP, Arunachalam N, Hiriyan J, Thenmozhi V, Gajanana A, Satyanarayana K, 2004. Host-feeding pattern of Culex quinquefasciatus Say and Mansonia annulifera (Theobald) (Diptera: Culicidae), the major vectors of filariasis in a rural area of south India. J Med Entomol 41 :442–446.
-
19
Zinser M, Ramberg F, Willott E, 2004. Culex quinquefasciatus (Diptera: Culicidae) as a potential West Nile virus vector in Tucson, Arizona: blood meal analysis indicates feeding on both humans and birds. J Insect Sci 4 :20.
-
20
Parsons R, 2003. Mosquito control—Texas style. Wing Beats 14 :4–38.
-
21
Darsie RF Jr, Ward RA, 1981. Identification and geographic distribution of mosquitoes of North America, north of Mexico. Mosq Syst Suppl 1 :1–313.
-
22
Molaei G, Andreadis TG, Armstrong PM, Anderson JF, Vossbrinck CR, 2006. Host feeding patterns of Culex mosquitoes and West Nile virus transmission, northeastern United States. Emerg Infect Dis 12 :468–474.
-
23
Molaei G, Andreadis TG, 2006. Identification of avian- and mammalian-derived bloodmeals in Aedes vexans and Culiseta melanura (Diptera: Culicidae) and its implication for West Nile virus transmission in Connecticut, USA. J Med Entomol 43 :1088–1093.
-
24
Molaei G, Oliver J, Andreadis TG, Armstrong PM, Howard JJ, 2006. Molecular identification of blood meal sources in Culiseta melanura and Culiseta morsitans from a focus of Eastern equine encephalomyelitis (EEE) virus transmission in New York, USA. Am J Trop Med Hyg 75 :1140–1147.
-
25
Lanciotti RS, Kerst AJ, Nasci RS, Godsey MS, Mitchell CJ, Savage HM, Komar N, Panella NA, Allen BC, Volpe KE, Davis BS, Roehrig JT, 2000. Rapid detection of West Nile virus from human clinical specimens, field-collected mosquitoes, and avian samples by a TaqMan reverse transcriptase-PCR assay. J Clin Microbiol 8 :4066–4071.
-
26
Andreadis TG, Anderson JF, Vossbrinck CR, Main AJ, 2004. Epidemiology of West Nile virus in Connecticut: a five-year analysis of mosquito data, 1999–2003. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 44 :360–378.
-
27
Kay BH, Boreham PFL, William GM, 1979. Host preference and feeding patterns of mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) at Kowanyama, Cape York Peninsula, northern Queensland. Bull Entomol Res 69 :441–457.
-
28
Lee DJ, Clinton KJ, O’Gower AK, 1954. The blood sources of some Australian mosquitoes. Aust J Biol Sci 7 :282–301.
-
29
Tempelis CH, 1975. Host-feeding patterns of mosquitoes with a review of advances in analysis of blood meals by serology. J Med Entomol 11 :635–653.
-
30
Apperson CS, Hassan HK, Harrison BA, Savage HM, Aspen SE, Farajollahi A, Crans W, Daniels TJ, Falco RC, Benedict M, Anderson M, McMillen L, Unnasch TR, 2004. Host feeding patterns of established and potential mosquito vectors of West Nile virus in the eastern United States. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 4 :71–82.
-
31
Komar N, Langevin S, Hinten S, Nemeth N, Edwards E, Hettler D, Davis B, Bowen R, Bunning M, 2003. Experimental infection of North American birds with the New York 1999 strain of West Nile virus. Emerg Infect Dis 9 :311–322.
-
32
Bernard KA, Maffei JG, Jones SA, Kauffman EB, Ebel G, Dupuis AP 2nd, Ngo KA, Nicholas DC, Young DM, Shi PY, Kulasekera VL, Eidson M, White DJ, Stone WB, Kramer LD, NY State West Nile Virus Surveillance Team, 2001. West Nile virus infection in birds and mosquitoes, New York State, 2000. Emerg Infect Dis 7 :679–685.
-
33
Lord CC, Rutledge CR, Tabachnick WJ, 2006. Relationships between host viremia and vector susceptibility for arboviruses. J Med Entomol 43 :623–630.
-
34
Reisen WK, Feng Y, Martinez V, 2007. Is non-viremic transmission of West Nile virus by Culex mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) non-viremic? J Med Entomol 44 :299–302.
-
35
Apperson CS, Harrison BA, Unnasch TR, Hassan HK, Irby WS, Savage HM, Aspen SE, Watson DW, Rueda LM, Engber BR, Nasci RS, 2002. Host-feeding habits of Culex and other mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) in the Borough of Queens in New York City, with characters and techniques for identification of Culex mosquitoes. J Med Entomol 39 :777–785.
-
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