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1
Carlier Y, Pinto Dias JC, Ostermayer Luquetti AO, Hontebeyrie M, Torrico F, Truyens C, 2002. Trypanosomiase américaine ou maladie de Chagas. Encyclopédie Médico-Chirurgicale, Maladies Infectieuses. Paris: Editions Scientifiques et Médicales Elsevier SAS, 8-505-A-20, 21 p.
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2
Schenone H, Gaggero M, Sapunar J, Contreras MC, Rojas A, 2001. Congenital Chagas disease of second generation in Santiago, Chile. Report of two cases. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo 43 :231–232.
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3
Carlier Y, Torrico F, 2003. Congenital infection with Trypanosoma cruzi: from mechanisms of transmission to strategies for diagnosis and control. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop 36 :767–771.
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4
Torrico F, Alonso-Vega C, Suarez E, Rodriguez P, Torrico MC, Dramaix M, Truyens C, Carlier Y, 2004. Maternal Trypanosoma cruzi infection, pregnancy outcome, morbidity, and mortality of congenitally infected and non-infected newborns in Bolivia. Am J Trop Med Hyg 70 :201–209.
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5
Hermann E, Truyens C, Alonso-Vega C, Rodriguez P, Berthe A, Torrico F, Carlier Y, 2004. Congenital transmission of Trypanosoma cruzi is associated with maternal enhanced parasitemia and decreased production of interferon-gamma in response to parasite antigens. J Infect Dis 189 :1274–1281.
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6
Virreira M, Alonso-Vega C, Solano M, Jijena J, Brutus L, Bustamante Z, Truyens C, Schneider D, Torrico F, Carlier Y, Svoboda M, 2006. Congenital Chagas disease in Bolivia is not associated with DNA polymorphism of Trypanosoma cruzi. Am J Trop Med Hyg 75 :871–879.
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7
Torrico MC, Solano M, Guzman JM, Parrado R, Suarez E, Alonso-Vega C, Truyens C, Carlier Y, Torrico F, 2005. Estimación de la parasitemia en la infección humana por T. cruzi las altas parasitemias están asociadas con la severa y fatal enfermedad de Chagas congénita. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop 38 :58–61.
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8
Virreira M, Torrico F, Truyens C, Alonso-Vega C, Solano M, Carlier Y, Svoboda M, 2003. Comparison of polymerase chain reaction methods for reliable and easy detection of congenital Trypanosoma cruzi infection. Am J Trop Med Hyg 68 :574–582.
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9
Cummings KL, Tarleton RL, 2003. Rapid quantitation of Trypanosoma cruzi in host tissue by real-time PCR. Mol Biochem Parasitol 129 :53–59.
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10
Virreira M, Martinez S, Alonso-Vega C, Torrico F, Solano M, Torrico MC, Parrado R, Truyens C, Carlier Y, Svoboda M, 2006. Amniotic fluid is not useful for diagnosis of congenital Trypanosoma cruzi infection. Am J Trop Med Hyg 75 :1082–1084.
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Vekemans J, Truyens C, Torrico F, Solano M, Torrico MC, Rodriguez P, Alonso-Vega C, Carlier Y, 2000. Maternal Trypanosoma cruzi infection upregulates capacity of uninfected neonate cells to produce pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines. Infect Immun 68 :5430–5434.
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12
Schijman AG, Altcheh J, Burgos JM, Biancardi M, Bisio M, Levin MJ, Freilij H, 2003. Aetiological treatment of congenital Chagas’ disease diagnosed and monitored by the polymerase chain reaction. J Antimicrob Chemother 52 :441–449.
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13
Hermann E, Truyens C, Alonso-Vega C, Even J, Rodriguez P, Berthe A, Gonzalez-Merino E, Torrico F, Carlier Y, 2002. Human fetuses are able to mount an adultlike CD8 T-cell response. Blood 100 :2153–2158.
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14
Breniere SF, Bosseno MF, Noireau F, Yacsik N, Liegeard P, Aznar C, Hontebeyrie M, 2002. Integrate study of a Bolivian population infected by Trypanosoma cruzi, the agent of Chagas disease. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 97 :289–295.
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15
Alves AM, De Almeida DF, von Kruger WM, 1994. Changes in Trypanosoma cruzi kinetoplast DNA minicircles induced by environmental conditions and subcloning. J Eukaryot Microbiol 41 :415–419.
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Vago AR, Macedo AM, Oliveira RP, Andrade LO, Chiari E, Galvao LM, Reis D, Pereira ME, Simpson AJ, Tostes S, Pena SD, 1996. Kinetoplast DNA signatures of Trypanosoma cruzi strains obtained directly from infected tissues. Am J Pathol 149 :2153–2159.
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17
Fernandez-Aguilar S, Lambot MA, Torrico F, Alonso-Vega C, Cordoba M, Suarez E, Noel JC, Carlier Y, 2005. Las lesiones placentarias en la infeccion humana por Trypanosoma cruzi. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop 38 (Suppl 2):84–86.
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Comparison of Trypanosoma cruzi Lineages and Levels of Parasitic DNA in Infected Mothers and Their Newborns
To better understand the factors involved in maternal–fetal transmission of Trypanosoma cruzi, we compared DNA levels—obtained by use of quantitative real-time PCR and parasitic genotypes determined by PCR amplification followed by hybridization—in Bolivian mothers and their congenitally infected newborns. Mothers and their neonates displayed markedly different parasitic DNA levels, as most maternal estimated parasitemias (> 90%) were < 10 parasites/mL, whereas those of 76% of their newborns were > 1,000 parasites/mL. Comparison of T. cruzi TcII sublineages infecting mothers and newborns showed identity, without evidence of mixed infection in mothers or neonates. Analysis of minor variants of TcIId-genotyped parasites using sequence class probes hybridizing with hypervariable domains of kDNA minicircles showed discrepancies in half of mother/newborn pairs.