Author:
- INTRODUCTION
- MATERIALS
- METHODS
- Antimalarial treatment.
- Microscopic diagnosis of malaria.
- Detection of mutations at the pfcrt-76 and pfmdr1-86 gene-loci.
- Detection of mutations at the dhfr (51, 59 108) and dhps (437 and 540) gene loci.
- Discrimination of recrudescence from new infection.
- Data processing and statistical analyses.
- Sample size.
- Ethical approval.
- RESULTS
- Study profile.
- Clinical and parasitological response to treatment.
- Prevalence of pfcrt-76 and pfmdr1-86 mutations in children with uncomplicated malaria.
- Prevalence of pfcrt-76T and the pfmdr1-86Y in asymptomatic children.
- Prevalence of dhfr (51, 59 108) and dhps (437, 540) alleles in symptomatic children.
- DISCUSSION
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1
Trape JF, 2001. The public health impact of chloroquine resistance in Africa. Am J Trop Med Hyg 64 :12–17.
-
2
Meerman L, Ord R, Teun Bousema J, van Niekerk M, Osman E, Hallett R, Pinder M, Walraven G, Sutherland CJ, 2005. Carriage of chloroquine-resistant parasites and delay of effective treatment increase the risk of severe malaria in Gambian children. J Infect Dis 192 :1651–1657.
-
3
WHO, 2001. Antimalarial drug combination therapy. Report of a WHO technical consultation. WHO/CDS/RBM/2001.35
-
4
WHO, 2003. The Africa Malaria report. WHO/CDS/RBM/2003.1093.
-
5
Lindsay SW, Snow RW, Broomfield GL, Janneh MS, Wirtz RA, Greenwood BM, 1989. Impact of permethrin-treated bednets on malaria transmission by the Anopheles gambiae complex in The Gambia. Med Vet Entomol 3 :263–271.
-
6
Cuzin-Ouattara N, Van den Broek AH, Habluetzel A, Diabate A, Sanogo Ilboudo E, Diallo DA, Cousens SN, Esposito F, 1999. Wide-scale installation of insecticide-treated curtains confers high levels of protection against malaria transmission in a hyperendemic area of Burkina Faso. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 93 :473–479.
-
7
Lengeler C, 2000. Insecticide-treated bednets and curtains for preventing malaria. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2 :Cd000363.
-
8
D’Alessandro U, Olaleye BO, McGuire W, Langerock P, Bennett S, Aikins MK, Thomson MC, Cham MK, Cham BA, Greenwood BM, 1995. Mortality and morbidity from malaria in Gambian children after introduction of an impregnated bed-net programme. Lancet 345 :479–483.
-
9
Nevill CG, Some ES, Mung’ala VO, Mutemi W, New L, Marsh K, Lengeler C, Snow RW, 1996. Insecticide-treated bednets reduce mortality and severe morbidity from malaria among children on the Kenyan coast. Trop Med Int Health 1 :139–146.
-
10
Binka FN, Kubaje A, Adjuik M, Williams LA, Lengeler C, Maude GH, Armah GE, Kajihara B, Adiamah JH, Smith PG, 1996. Impact of permethrin impregnated bednets on child mortality in Kassena-Nankana district, Ghana: a randomized controlled trial. Trop Med Int Health 1 :147–154.
-
11
Habluetzel A, Diallo DA, Esposito F, Lamizana L, Pagnoni F, Lengeler C, Traore C, Cousens SN, 1997. Do insecticide-treated curtains reduce all-cause child mortality in Burkina Faso? Trop Med Int Health 2 :855–862.
-
12
Molyneux DH, Floyd K, Barnish G, Fevre EM, 1999. Transmission control and drug resistance in malaria: a crucial interaction. Parasitol Today 15 :238–240.
-
13
Snow RW, Bastos de Azevedo I, Lowe BS, Kabiru EW, Nevill CG, Mwankusye S, Kassiga G, Marsh K, Teuscher T, 1994. Severe childhood malaria in two areas of markedly different falciparum transmission in east Africa. Acta Trop 57 :289–300.
-
14
Payne D, 1988. Did medicated salt hasten the spread of chloroquine resistance in Plasmodium falciparum. Parasitol Today 4 :112–115.
-
15
White NJ, 1999. Delaying antimalarial drug resistance with combination chemotherapy. Parassitologia 41 :301–308.
-
16
Curtis CF, Otoo LN, 1986. A simple model of the build-up of resistance to mixtures of anti-malarial drug. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 80 :889–892.
-
17
Paul RE, Packer MJ, Walmsley M, Lagog M, Ranford Cartwright LC, Paru R, Day KP, 1995. Mating patterns in malaria parasite populations of Papua New Guinea. Science 269 :1709–1711.
-
18
Dye C, Williams BG, 1997. Multigenic drug resistance among inbred malaria parasites. Proc R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 264 :61–67.
-
19
Hastings IM, D’Alessandro U, 2000. Modelling a predictable disaster: the rise and spread of drug-resistantmalaria. Parasitol Today 16 :340–347.
-
20
Talisuna AO, Langi P, Mutabingwa TK, Van Marck E, Speybroeck N, Egwang TG, Watkins WW, Hastings IM, D’Alessandro U, 2003. Intensity of transmission and spread of gene mutations linked to chloroquine and sulphadoxine-pyrimethamine resistance in falciparum malaria. Int J Parasitol 33 :1051–1058.
-
21
Alifrangis M, Lemnge MM, Ronn AM, Segeja MD, Magesa SM, Khalil IF, Bygbjerg IC, 2003. Increasing prevalence of wild-types in the dihydrofolate reductase gene of Plasmodium falciparum in an area with high levels of sulfadoxine/pyrimethamine resistance after introduction of treated bed nets. Am J Trop Med Hyg 69 :238–243.
-
22
Mharakurwa S, Mutambu SL, Mudyiradima R, Chimbadzwa T, Chandiwana SK, Day KP, 2004. Association of house spraying with suppressed levels of drug resistance in Zimbabwe. Malaria J 3 :1–9.
-
23
Habluetzel A, Cuzin N, Diallo DA, Nebie I, Belem S, Cousens SN, Esposito F, 1999. Insecticide-treated curtains reduce the prevalence and intensity of malaria infection in Burkina Faso. Trop Med Int Health 4 :557–564.
-
24
Guiguemde TR, Aouba A, Ouedraogo JB, Lamizana L, 1994. Ten-year surveillance of drug-resistant malaria in Burkina Faso (1982–1991). Am J Trop Med Hyg 50 :699–704.
-
25
Tinto H, Zoungrana EB, Coulibaly CO, Ouedraogo JB, Traore M, Guiguemde TR, Van Marck E, D’Alessandro U, 2002. Chloroquine and pyrimethamine efficacy for uncomplicated malaria treatment and hematological recovery in children in Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso during a 3-year period 1998–2000. Trop Med Int Health 7 :925–930.
-
26
Diallo DA, Cousens SN, Cuzin-Ouattara N, Nebie I, Ilboudo-Sanogo E, Esposito F, 2004. Child mortality in a West African population protected with insecticide-treated curtains for a period of up to 6 years. Bull World Health Org 82 :85–91.
-
27
Ilboudo Sanogo E, Cuzin-Ouattara N, Diallo DA, Cousens SN, Esposito F, Habluetzel A, Sanon S, Ouedraogo AP, 2001. Insecticide-treated materials, mosquito adaptation and mass effect: entomological observations after five years of vector control in Burkina Faso. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 95 :353–360.
-
28
WHO, 1996. Assessment of therapeutic efficacy of antimalarial drugs for uncomplicated falciparum malaria in areas with intense transmission. WHO/MAL/1996.1077.
-
29
Plowe CV, Wellems TE, 1995. Molecular approaches to the spreading problem of drug resistant malaria. Adv Exp Med Biol 390 :197–209.
-
30
Sutherland CJ, Alloueche A, Curtis J, Drakeley CJ, Ord R, Duraisingh M, Greenwood BM, Pinder M, Warhurst D, Targett GA, 2002. Gambian children successfully treated with chloroquine can harbor and transmit Plasmodium falciparum game-tocytes carrying resistance genes. Am J Trop Med Hyg 67 :578–585.
-
31
Djimdé A, Doumbo OK, Cortese JF, Kayentao K, Doumbo S, Diourte Y, Dicko A, Su XZ, Nomura T, Fidock DA, Wellems TE, Plowe CV, Coulibaly D, 2001. A molecular marker for chloroquine-resistant falciparum malaria. N Engl J Med 344 :257–263.
-
32
Pearce RJ, Drakeley C, Chandramohan D, Mosha F, Roper C, 2003. Molecular determination of point mutation haplotypes in the dihydrofolate reductase and dihydropteroate synthase of Plasmodium falciparum in three districts of northern Tanzania. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 47 :1347–1354.
-
33
Felger I, Irion A, Steiger S, Beck HP, 1999. Genotypes of merozoite surface protein 2 of Plasmodium falciparum in Tanzania. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 93 (Suppl 4):3–9.
-
34
Snounou G, Zhu X, Siripoon N, Jarra W, Thaithong S, Brown KN, Viriyakosol S, 1999. Biased distribution of msp1 and msp2 allelic variants in Plasmodium falciparum populations in Thailand. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 94 :369–374.
-
35
Cattamanchi A, Kyabayinze D, Hubbard A, Rosenthal P, Dorsey G, 2003. Distinguishing recrudescence from reinfection in a longitudinal antimalarial drug efficacy study: comparison of results based on genotyping of MSP-1, MSP-2 and GLURP. Am J Trop Med Hyg 68 :133–139.
-
36
Schneider AG, Premji Z, Felger I, Smith T, Abdulla S, Beck H-P, Mshinda H, 2002. A point mutation in codon 76 of pfcrt of P. falciparum is positively selected for by Chloroquine treatment in Tanzania. Infect Genet Evol 1 :183–189.
-
37
Hayes R, Bennett S, 1999. Simple sample size calculation for cluster-randomised trials. Int J Epidemiol 28 :319–326.
-
38
Tinto H, Ouedraogo JB, Erhart A, Van Overmeir C, Dujardin JC, Van Marck E, Guiguemde TR, D’Alessandro U, 2003. Relationship between the Pfcrt T76 and the Pfmdr-1 Y86 mutations in Plasmodium falciparum and in vitro/in vivo chloroquine resistance in Burkina Faso, West Africa. Infect Genet Evol 3 :287–292.
-
39
Chiucchiuini A, Babiker H, Ranford-Cartwright L, Cuzin-Ouattara N, Nebie I, Cousens SN, Walliker D, Esposito F, 2001. Insecticide treated curtains and allelic polymorphism of Plasmodium falciparum genes in a rural area of Burkina Faso (west Africa). Parasitologia 43 (Suppl 1):7–10.
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40
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Maxwell CA, Msuya E, Sudi M, Njunwa KJ, Carneiro IA, Curtis CF, 2002. Effect of community-wide use of insecticide-treated nets for 3–4 years on malarial morbidity in Tanzania. Trop Med Int Health 7 :1003–1008.
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SUSTAINED USE OF INSECTICIDE-TREATED CURTAINS IS NOT ASSOCIATED WITH GREATER CIRCULATION OF DRUG-RESISTANT MALARIA PARASITES, OR WITH HIGHER RISK OF TREATMENT FAILURE AMONG CHILDREN WITH UNCOMPLICATED MALARIA IN BURKINA FASO
DIADIER A. DIALLO
DIADIER A. DIALLO
Centre National de Recherche et de Formation Sur Le Paludisme (CNRFP), Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso; London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine (LSHTM), London, United Kingdom
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COLIN SUTHERLAND
COLIN SUTHERLAND
Centre National de Recherche et de Formation Sur Le Paludisme (CNRFP), Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso; London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine (LSHTM), London, United Kingdom
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ISSA NEBIÉ
ISSA NEBIÉ
Centre National de Recherche et de Formation Sur Le Paludisme (CNRFP), Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso; London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine (LSHTM), London, United Kingdom
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AMADOU T. KONATÉ
AMADOU T. KONATÉ
Centre National de Recherche et de Formation Sur Le Paludisme (CNRFP), Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso; London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine (LSHTM), London, United Kingdom
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ROSALYNN ORD
ROSALYNN ORD
Centre National de Recherche et de Formation Sur Le Paludisme (CNRFP), Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso; London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine (LSHTM), London, United Kingdom
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HIRVA POTA
HIRVA POTA
Centre National de Recherche et de Formation Sur Le Paludisme (CNRFP), Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso; London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine (LSHTM), London, United Kingdom
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CALLY ROPER
CALLY ROPER
Centre National de Recherche et de Formation Sur Le Paludisme (CNRFP), Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso; London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine (LSHTM), London, United Kingdom
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EDITH ILBOUDO-SANOGO
EDITH ILBOUDO-SANOGO
Centre National de Recherche et de Formation Sur Le Paludisme (CNRFP), Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso; London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine (LSHTM), London, United Kingdom
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BRIAN M. GREENWOOD
BRIAN M. GREENWOOD
Centre National de Recherche et de Formation Sur Le Paludisme (CNRFP), Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso; London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine (LSHTM), London, United Kingdom
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SIMON N. COUSENS
SIMON N. COUSENS
Centre National de Recherche et de Formation Sur Le Paludisme (CNRFP), Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso; London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine (LSHTM), London, United Kingdom
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The impact of vector control measures on the evolution of antimalarial drug resistance is an important issue for malaria control programs. We investigated whether the in vivo efficacy of chloroquine (CQ) in children aged 6–59 months with uncomplicated malaria differed in 9 villages that had benefited from long-term use of insecticide-treated curtains (ITCs) and in 9 nearby non-ITC villages. We also compared the prevalence of genetic markers of resistance to CQ and sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine (SP) between the two groups of villages. The study enrolled 1,035 children with uncomplicated malaria and 231 infected but asymptomatic children. After taking account of re-infections, the proportions of children who experienced clinical failure after treatment with CQ were 14% and 19% in ITC and non-ITC villages, respectively (OR = 0.68; 95% CI: 0.39, 1.18). Parasitologic failure was observed in 49% of children in ITC villages and 58% of children in non-ITC villages (OR = 0.71 95%CI: 0.44, 1.13). The proportion of symptomatic children who harbored parasites carrying the pfcrt-76T allele was 43% in ITC villages and 40% in non-ITC villages (OR = 1.09; 95%CI: 0.80, 1.50). The pfmdr1-86Y allele was detected in 31% and 29% of children in the two groups of villages (OR = 1.14; 95%CI: 0.75, 1.72). Triple mutations in the dhfr gene were observed in 12% of children in both groups. No double mutations in the dhps gene were observed. Similar results were observed in asymptomatic children. In this setting, ITC use was not associated with increased circulation of parasites resistant to standard antimalarial drugs, or with a greater risk of treatment failure among children less than 5 years of age.
Author Notes
- INTRODUCTION
- MATERIALS
- METHODS
- Antimalarial treatment.
- Microscopic diagnosis of malaria.
- Detection of mutations at the pfcrt-76 and pfmdr1-86 gene-loci.
- Detection of mutations at the dhfr (51, 59 108) and dhps (437 and 540) gene loci.
- Discrimination of recrudescence from new infection.
- Data processing and statistical analyses.
- Sample size.
- Ethical approval.
- RESULTS
- Study profile.
- Clinical and parasitological response to treatment.
- Prevalence of pfcrt-76 and pfmdr1-86 mutations in children with uncomplicated malaria.
- Prevalence of pfcrt-76T and the pfmdr1-86Y in asymptomatic children.
- Prevalence of dhfr (51, 59 108) and dhps (437, 540) alleles in symptomatic children.
- DISCUSSION
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1
Trape JF, 2001. The public health impact of chloroquine resistance in Africa. Am J Trop Med Hyg 64 :12–17.
-
2
Meerman L, Ord R, Teun Bousema J, van Niekerk M, Osman E, Hallett R, Pinder M, Walraven G, Sutherland CJ, 2005. Carriage of chloroquine-resistant parasites and delay of effective treatment increase the risk of severe malaria in Gambian children. J Infect Dis 192 :1651–1657.
-
3
WHO, 2001. Antimalarial drug combination therapy. Report of a WHO technical consultation. WHO/CDS/RBM/2001.35
-
4
WHO, 2003. The Africa Malaria report. WHO/CDS/RBM/2003.1093.
-
5
Lindsay SW, Snow RW, Broomfield GL, Janneh MS, Wirtz RA, Greenwood BM, 1989. Impact of permethrin-treated bednets on malaria transmission by the Anopheles gambiae complex in The Gambia. Med Vet Entomol 3 :263–271.
-
6
Cuzin-Ouattara N, Van den Broek AH, Habluetzel A, Diabate A, Sanogo Ilboudo E, Diallo DA, Cousens SN, Esposito F, 1999. Wide-scale installation of insecticide-treated curtains confers high levels of protection against malaria transmission in a hyperendemic area of Burkina Faso. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 93 :473–479.
-
7
Lengeler C, 2000. Insecticide-treated bednets and curtains for preventing malaria. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2 :Cd000363.
-
8
D’Alessandro U, Olaleye BO, McGuire W, Langerock P, Bennett S, Aikins MK, Thomson MC, Cham MK, Cham BA, Greenwood BM, 1995. Mortality and morbidity from malaria in Gambian children after introduction of an impregnated bed-net programme. Lancet 345 :479–483.
-
9
Nevill CG, Some ES, Mung’ala VO, Mutemi W, New L, Marsh K, Lengeler C, Snow RW, 1996. Insecticide-treated bednets reduce mortality and severe morbidity from malaria among children on the Kenyan coast. Trop Med Int Health 1 :139–146.
-
10
Binka FN, Kubaje A, Adjuik M, Williams LA, Lengeler C, Maude GH, Armah GE, Kajihara B, Adiamah JH, Smith PG, 1996. Impact of permethrin impregnated bednets on child mortality in Kassena-Nankana district, Ghana: a randomized controlled trial. Trop Med Int Health 1 :147–154.
-
11
Habluetzel A, Diallo DA, Esposito F, Lamizana L, Pagnoni F, Lengeler C, Traore C, Cousens SN, 1997. Do insecticide-treated curtains reduce all-cause child mortality in Burkina Faso? Trop Med Int Health 2 :855–862.
-
12
Molyneux DH, Floyd K, Barnish G, Fevre EM, 1999. Transmission control and drug resistance in malaria: a crucial interaction. Parasitol Today 15 :238–240.
-
13
Snow RW, Bastos de Azevedo I, Lowe BS, Kabiru EW, Nevill CG, Mwankusye S, Kassiga G, Marsh K, Teuscher T, 1994. Severe childhood malaria in two areas of markedly different falciparum transmission in east Africa. Acta Trop 57 :289–300.
-
14
Payne D, 1988. Did medicated salt hasten the spread of chloroquine resistance in Plasmodium falciparum. Parasitol Today 4 :112–115.
-
15
White NJ, 1999. Delaying antimalarial drug resistance with combination chemotherapy. Parassitologia 41 :301–308.
-
16
Curtis CF, Otoo LN, 1986. A simple model of the build-up of resistance to mixtures of anti-malarial drug. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 80 :889–892.
-
17
Paul RE, Packer MJ, Walmsley M, Lagog M, Ranford Cartwright LC, Paru R, Day KP, 1995. Mating patterns in malaria parasite populations of Papua New Guinea. Science 269 :1709–1711.
-
18
Dye C, Williams BG, 1997. Multigenic drug resistance among inbred malaria parasites. Proc R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 264 :61–67.
-
19
Hastings IM, D’Alessandro U, 2000. Modelling a predictable disaster: the rise and spread of drug-resistantmalaria. Parasitol Today 16 :340–347.
-
20
Talisuna AO, Langi P, Mutabingwa TK, Van Marck E, Speybroeck N, Egwang TG, Watkins WW, Hastings IM, D’Alessandro U, 2003. Intensity of transmission and spread of gene mutations linked to chloroquine and sulphadoxine-pyrimethamine resistance in falciparum malaria. Int J Parasitol 33 :1051–1058.
-
21
Alifrangis M, Lemnge MM, Ronn AM, Segeja MD, Magesa SM, Khalil IF, Bygbjerg IC, 2003. Increasing prevalence of wild-types in the dihydrofolate reductase gene of Plasmodium falciparum in an area with high levels of sulfadoxine/pyrimethamine resistance after introduction of treated bed nets. Am J Trop Med Hyg 69 :238–243.
-
22
Mharakurwa S, Mutambu SL, Mudyiradima R, Chimbadzwa T, Chandiwana SK, Day KP, 2004. Association of house spraying with suppressed levels of drug resistance in Zimbabwe. Malaria J 3 :1–9.
-
23
Habluetzel A, Cuzin N, Diallo DA, Nebie I, Belem S, Cousens SN, Esposito F, 1999. Insecticide-treated curtains reduce the prevalence and intensity of malaria infection in Burkina Faso. Trop Med Int Health 4 :557–564.
-
24
Guiguemde TR, Aouba A, Ouedraogo JB, Lamizana L, 1994. Ten-year surveillance of drug-resistant malaria in Burkina Faso (1982–1991). Am J Trop Med Hyg 50 :699–704.
-
25
Tinto H, Zoungrana EB, Coulibaly CO, Ouedraogo JB, Traore M, Guiguemde TR, Van Marck E, D’Alessandro U, 2002. Chloroquine and pyrimethamine efficacy for uncomplicated malaria treatment and hematological recovery in children in Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso during a 3-year period 1998–2000. Trop Med Int Health 7 :925–930.
-
26
Diallo DA, Cousens SN, Cuzin-Ouattara N, Nebie I, Ilboudo-Sanogo E, Esposito F, 2004. Child mortality in a West African population protected with insecticide-treated curtains for a period of up to 6 years. Bull World Health Org 82 :85–91.
-
27
Ilboudo Sanogo E, Cuzin-Ouattara N, Diallo DA, Cousens SN, Esposito F, Habluetzel A, Sanon S, Ouedraogo AP, 2001. Insecticide-treated materials, mosquito adaptation and mass effect: entomological observations after five years of vector control in Burkina Faso. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 95 :353–360.
-
28
WHO, 1996. Assessment of therapeutic efficacy of antimalarial drugs for uncomplicated falciparum malaria in areas with intense transmission. WHO/MAL/1996.1077.
-
29
Plowe CV, Wellems TE, 1995. Molecular approaches to the spreading problem of drug resistant malaria. Adv Exp Med Biol 390 :197–209.
-
30
Sutherland CJ, Alloueche A, Curtis J, Drakeley CJ, Ord R, Duraisingh M, Greenwood BM, Pinder M, Warhurst D, Targett GA, 2002. Gambian children successfully treated with chloroquine can harbor and transmit Plasmodium falciparum game-tocytes carrying resistance genes. Am J Trop Med Hyg 67 :578–585.
-
31
Djimdé A, Doumbo OK, Cortese JF, Kayentao K, Doumbo S, Diourte Y, Dicko A, Su XZ, Nomura T, Fidock DA, Wellems TE, Plowe CV, Coulibaly D, 2001. A molecular marker for chloroquine-resistant falciparum malaria. N Engl J Med 344 :257–263.
-
32
Pearce RJ, Drakeley C, Chandramohan D, Mosha F, Roper C, 2003. Molecular determination of point mutation haplotypes in the dihydrofolate reductase and dihydropteroate synthase of Plasmodium falciparum in three districts of northern Tanzania. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 47 :1347–1354.
-
33
Felger I, Irion A, Steiger S, Beck HP, 1999. Genotypes of merozoite surface protein 2 of Plasmodium falciparum in Tanzania. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 93 (Suppl 4):3–9.
-
34
Snounou G, Zhu X, Siripoon N, Jarra W, Thaithong S, Brown KN, Viriyakosol S, 1999. Biased distribution of msp1 and msp2 allelic variants in Plasmodium falciparum populations in Thailand. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 94 :369–374.
-
35
Cattamanchi A, Kyabayinze D, Hubbard A, Rosenthal P, Dorsey G, 2003. Distinguishing recrudescence from reinfection in a longitudinal antimalarial drug efficacy study: comparison of results based on genotyping of MSP-1, MSP-2 and GLURP. Am J Trop Med Hyg 68 :133–139.
-
36
Schneider AG, Premji Z, Felger I, Smith T, Abdulla S, Beck H-P, Mshinda H, 2002. A point mutation in codon 76 of pfcrt of P. falciparum is positively selected for by Chloroquine treatment in Tanzania. Infect Genet Evol 1 :183–189.
-
37
Hayes R, Bennett S, 1999. Simple sample size calculation for cluster-randomised trials. Int J Epidemiol 28 :319–326.
-
38
Tinto H, Ouedraogo JB, Erhart A, Van Overmeir C, Dujardin JC, Van Marck E, Guiguemde TR, D’Alessandro U, 2003. Relationship between the Pfcrt T76 and the Pfmdr-1 Y86 mutations in Plasmodium falciparum and in vitro/in vivo chloroquine resistance in Burkina Faso, West Africa. Infect Genet Evol 3 :287–292.
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